Environmental Instrumentation and Analysis Handbook

by Down, Randy D.; Lehr, Jay H.

• ISBN13: 9780471463542
• ISBN10: 047146354X
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2004-10-25
• Publisher: Wiley-Interscience

Summary

A comprehensive resource for information about different technologies and methods to measure and analyze contamination of air, water, and soil. * Serves as a technical reference in the field of environmental science and engineering * Includes information on instrumentation used for measurement and control of effluents and emissions from industrial facilities that can directly influence the environment * Focuses on applications, making it a practical reference tool

Author Biography

RANDY D. DOWN, PE, is a recognized expert in environmental instrumentation and controls with Forensic Analysis and Engineering Corp. His more than thirty years of instrumentation and controls experience covers a wide range of industries and applications. <p>JAY H. LEHR, PHD, is the Science Director of The Heartland Institute and Senior Scientist at Bennett & Williams, Inc. He is the author of fourteen books and over 500 articles on environmental science.

Table of Contents

Preface	ix
PART I INSTRUMENTATION METHODOLOGIES
Influence of Regulatory Requirements on Instrumentation Design	3	(10)
Randy D. Down
Introduction
Environmental Regulatory Requirements
Key Factors Influencing Development
Emerging Sensor Technology
Other Advancing Technologies
Regulatory Trends
MACT/BACT Analysis
Product Development
Networked Systems
Future Considerations
International Organization for Standardization
Conclusion
Additional Sources of Information
In Situ Versus Extractive Measurement Techniques	13	(36)
Gerald McGowan
Extractive Measurement Techniques
Conventional Extractive Systems
Hot, Wet Extractive Systems
Dilution Extractive Systems
Special Systems
In Situ Measurement Techniques
Across-the-Stack Systems
Probe-Type Systems
Key Application Differences
Conventional Extractive Systems
Hot, Wet Extractive Systems
Dilution Extractive Systems
Across-the-Stack Systems
Probe-Type In Situ Systems
General Precautions
References
Validation of Continuous Emission Monitor (CEM) System Accuracy and Reliability	49	(12)
Todd B. Colin
Introduction
What Is System Validation?
Why Validate an Analytical System?
Types of Validations
Validation of New CEM Installations
Analyzer Calibration and Verification
Sampling System Verification
Data System Verification
Validating the Entire System
Validation of CEM Replacement Installations
Analyzer Calibration and Verification
Sampling System Verification
Data System Verification
Validating the Entire System
Crossover Validations to Existing Analyzer
Practical Illustration of Analyzer Validation
Validations Involving Government Agencies
Types of Government Regulation
Documentation Required
References
Integration of CEM Into Distributed Control Systems	61	(26)
Joseph A. Ice
Introduction
Agency Permit and Report Requirements
CEM Technical Requirements
Analyzer Specifications
Sample System
Basic Analyzer Requirements
Plant Environmental Requirements
CEM System Report Specifications
Data Acquisition System Requirements
DAS Features
Communications Interfaces
Total Group Solutions
Data Exchanges
Data Retention
Factory Acceptance Testing
Conclusion
Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy	87	(32)
Tye Ed Barber
Norma L. Ayala
John M.E. Storey
G. Louis Powell
William D. Brosey
Norman R. Smyrl
Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy
Absorption of Infrared Radiation
Infrared Spectra
Beer's Law
Differential Absorption
Components Common to All Infrared Instruments
Optical Materials
Sources
Detectors
Gas Cells and Remote Sensing
Infrared Spectrometers
Nondispersive Infrared Spectrometers
Dispersive Spectrometers
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometers
Laser Spectrometers
Gas Calibration Standards
Generation of Gases
Mixing Gases
Calibration Considerations
Single-Wavelength Calibration
Spectral Subtraction
Multivariate Calibration
Selection of an Infrared Technique
References
Ultraviolet Analyzers	119	(28)
Jeffrey E. Johnston
Marc M. Baum
Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
Physical Principles
Spectral Structure
Measurement Methods
Absorptive Techniques
Emissive Techniques
Scattering Techniques
Standard Applications
Continuous Emission Monitors
Ambient Point Source Monitors
Ambient Open-Path Monitors
Practical Considerations
Measurement Requirements
Physical Requirements
Operational Requirements
Example---Reduction of NOx
Summary
References
Total Hydrocarbon Analysis Using Flame Ionization Detector	147	(10)
John Kosch
Applications
Operating Principle
Burner Jet
Inner Flame Zone (Pyrolysis Zone)
Outer Flame Zone (Oxidation Zone)
Surrounding Oxidizing Atmosphere
Measuring Range
Potential Shortfalls
Tips
Conclusion
Gas Chromatography in Environmental Analysis	157	(30)
John N. Driscoll
Introduction
Gas Chromatography Theory
Column Selection
Capillary Columns
GC Hardware
Temperature Control
GC Detectors
Photoionization Detector
Flame Ionization Detector
Electron Capture Detector
Thermal Conductivity Detector
Flame Photometric Detector
Far-UV Absorbance Detector
Discussion
Sampling
Extraction Methods
Volatile Organic Compounds
Semivolatile Organic Compounds
Dual Detectors
Site or Fenceline Monitoring
References
Online Analysis of Environmental Samples by Mass Spectrometry	187	(34)
Raimo A. Ketola
Introduction
Background
Definition and Scope
Mass Analyzers Used in Online Mass Spectrometry
Quadrupole
Ion Trap
Time-of-Flight Analyzers
Sector Instruments
Miniature and Portable Mass Analyzers
Sample Ionization and Introduction
Electron and Chemical Ionization
Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization
Direct Capillary Inlets
Membrane Introduction Mass Spectrometry
Flow Tube Techniques
Laser Techniques
Detectors
Analysis of Environmental Samples
Water
Air
Other Matrices
Future Perspectives
References
Photoionization	221	(16)
John N. Driscoll
Introduction
Structures of Selected Organic Compounds at Hazardous Waste Sites
Photoionization
Screening and Analysis Levels
Level I Screening
Level II Screening
Total Hydrocarbon Measurement Techniques
Calibration
Industrial Hygiene and Survey Measurements
Soil Gas Measurements
Headspace
Reporting Data
Conclusions
References
Portable Versus Stationary Analytical Instruments	237	(14)
Randy D. Down
Introduction
Portable Instruments
Power Sources
Calibration
Data Loggers
Pros and Cons
Stationary Instruments
Harsh Environments
Hazardous Areas
Sampling Pumps
Mounting Requirements
Protection
Accessibility
Calibration
Conclusions
Application of XRF to the Analysis of Environmental Samples	251	(20)
John N. Driscoll
Introduction
Basics of XRF Spectroscopy
Detection Geometry
X-Ray Sources
Detectors
Sample Preparation
Sampling
Soils
Liquid Samples
Filter Paper
XRF Equipment and Operational Considerations
XRF Equipment
Operational Considerations for Tube-Excited XRF
Minimum Detectable Concentration
Errors in EDXRF
Total Error
Counting Errors
Systematic Errors
Random Errors
Average Absolute Error
Results and Discussion
EPA Results with SEFA-P
Results with Tube-Excited XRF
References
Laboratory Analysis	271	(24)
Paul J. Giammatteo
John C. Edwards
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Basic Concepts
Liquid-State NMR
Solid-State NMR
Magic Angle Spinning
Cross-Polarization
High-Power Decoupling
Environmental Applications of NMR
Techniques and Applications on the Horizon
Summary
References
Solid-Phase Microextraction	295	(34)
Yong Chen
Janusz Pawliszyn
Introduction
Evolution of Solid-Phase Microextraction Technology
Principles of Solid-Phase Microextraction
Equilibrium Extraction
Diffusion-Based Calibration
Passive Time-Weighted Average Sampling
Derivatization
Method Development
Solid-Phase Microextraction Devices and Interfaces to Analytical Instrumentation
Commercial Devices
Interfaces to Analytical Instrumentation
Applications of Solid-Phase Microextraction
Gaseous Matrices
Liquid Matrices
Solid Matrices
References
Continuous Particulate Monitoring	329	(26)
William J. Averdieck
Overview
Why Particulate Emissions Are Continuously Monitored
Types of Continuous Particulate Monitoring
Concentration Measurement
Qualitative Monitoring
Gross Failure Detection
Overview of Legislative Requirements
United Kingdom
Germany
United States
Technologies for Continuous Particulate Monitoring
Optical Attenuation (Opacity)
Dynamic Opacity (Scintillation)
Beta Attenuation
Light Scattering
Vibrating Tapered Element
Charge Measurement Techniques
Checklist for Particulate Monitoring
Gas Survey Instruments	355	(16)
Randy D. Down
Introduction
Instrument Selection
Electrochemical Sensors
Infrared Sensors
Ultrasonic Detectors
Typically Measured Gases
Leak Testing
Gas Flow in Leaks
Method Selection
Cautionary Measures
Personal Exposure Monitoring
Gas Survey Instrument Classifications
Sniffers
Ambient Analyzers
Gas Survey Instrument Calibration
Fugitive Emissions Monitoring
Glossary
Ion Chromatography for the Analysis of Inorganic Anions in Water	371	(30)
Peter E. Jackson
Introduction
Background
Definition and Scope
Basic Principles
Alternative Analytical Techniques
Sample Handling and Preparation
Sample Storage and Preservation
Sample Dissolution
Sample Cleanup
Regulatory Methods of Analysis
Water and Wastewater Analysis
Drinking Water and Wastewater
Natural Waters
Brines
Quality Control for Ion Chromatographic Analysis
References
Ultraviolet-Visible Analysis of Water and Wastewater	401	(18)
Bernard J. Beemster
Introduction: Spectrometric Methods of Analysis
Basic Principles of UV-Visible Absorption Spectrometry
Beer's Law
Detection of Absorption Spectra
Interpretation of UV-Visible Absorption Spectra
Apparatus for Online UV-Visible Analysis
Online Filter Photometers
Online Spectrometers
Applications for Water and Wastewater Analysis
Primary Analysis Parameters
Secondary Analysis Parameters
Multiple-Parameter Systems
PART II WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
Thermal Conductivity Detectors	419	(14)
John M. Hiller
Nancy M. Baldwin
Thermal Conductivity
As a General Property of Materials
As a Specific Property of Gases
Sensor Principles of Operation
Thermocouple
Thermistor
Hot Wire
Wheatstone Bridge
Instrument Embodiments
Vacuum Gauges
Flow Sensors and Controllers
Leak Detectors
Gas Chromatography Detectors
References
Opacity Monitors	433	(12)
Julian Saltz
Introduction
Basic Measurements
Transmittance and Opacity
Optical Density
Ringleman Number
Design Considerations for Opacity Monitors
Single-Pass Opacity Monitor
Projection and Viewing Angles
Response Time
Double-Pass Opacity Meter
Photopic Light
Single-versus Two-Cell Detector
Zero and Span Measurements
Slotted Pipes
Light Sources
Incandescent Lamps
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Laser Light Source
USEPA Opacity Specifications
Peak and Mean Spectral Responses
Viewing and Projection Angles
Optical Alignment Sight
Simulated Zero and Upscale Calibration System
Example of an Installation in a Chemical Plant
References
Temperature Measurement	445	(14)
Randy D. Down
Introduction
Instrument Selection
Avoiding Errors
Mechanical and Electromechanical Temperature Sensing
Bimetallic Elements
Remote Bulb Thermometers and Thermostats
Electronic Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples
Thermistors
Resistance-Temperature Detectors
RTDs Versus Thermocouples
Thermowell Assemblies
Infrared Detection
Components of a Temperature Measurement Loop
Calibration
Temperature Transmitters
Typical Applications
Temperature Measurements to Establish Flow Rates
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sensor Types
Conclusion
Glossary
References
pH Analyzers and Their Application	459	(32)
James R. Gray
Theory of pH Measurement
Definition of pH
Acid-Base Chemistry
Theory of pH and Reference Electrodes
Process Effects on pH Measurements
Effect of Temperature on Solution pH
Effects of Mixed Solvents on pH Measurement
Process Effects on the Glass pH Electrode
Process Effects on Nonflowing Reference Electrodes
pH Sensor Coating and Cleaning
pH Sensor Mounting
Sensor and Analyzer Location
Mounting Configurations
Calibration
Buffer Calibration
Single-Point Standardization
Diagnostics and Troubleshooting
Traditional Error Detection and Troubleshooting
Analyzer Self-Diagnostics
Glass pH Electrode Impedance Diagnostics
Analyzer-User Interface and Output Signal
The Basic Analog pH Analyzer
The Microprocessor-Based pH Analyzer
Smart pH Analyzers
The Application of pH
Applicable pH Measurement Range
Leak Detection with pH
Concentration Measurement with pH
Reaction Monitoring and Endpoint Detection
Summary
Conductivity Analyzers and Their Application	491	(20)
James R. Gray
Theory of Electrolytic Conductivity
Background
Conductive Solutions
Concentration Dependence of Conductivity
Conductivity Measurement Techniques
Electrode Conductivity
Toroidal (Coductive) Conductivity
Criteria for Choosing the Conductivity Measurement Technique
Effects of Temperature on Solution Conductivity
Temperature Compensation of Moderately Conductive Solutions
Temperature Compensation in High-Purity Water
Temperature Compensation in Strongly Conductive Solutions
Conductivity Sensor Mounting
Sensor and Analyzer Locations
Mounting Configurations
Conductivity Calibration
Calibration in Moderate to Highly Conductive Solutions
Hight-Purity Water Measurements
Diagnostics and Troubleshooting
Traditional Error Detection and Troubleshooting
Analyzer Self-Diagnostics
Analyzer-User Interface and Output Signal
The Basic Analog Conductivity Analyzer
The Microprocessor-Based Conductivity Analyzer
Smart Conductivity Analyzers
Application of Conductivity
Nonspecific Applications
Leak Detection with Conductivity
Concentration Measurements
Reaction Monitoring and Endpoint Detection
Summary
Turbidity Monitoring	511	(36)
John Downing
Introduction and Scope
Origins of Turbidimeters and Turbidity Standards
Light-Scattering Theory for Turbidity
Turbidimeter Designs
EPA 180.1
GLI-2 Method
ISO 7027
Ratiometric Designs
Attenuation Meters and Spectrophotometers
Cleaning Systems: Wipers and Shutters
Backscatter Sensors
Formazin--The Primary Standard
Alternative Standards
Relationships Between Turbidity and Sediment
Secondary (Check) Standards
General Guidance
Portable Turbidimeters
Submersible Turbidimeters
Before Going to the Field
Sampling and Data Considerations
Estimating Suspended Sediment from Turbidity
Water Sampling
Quality Control and Assurance
Statistics
U.S. Regulations
Summary
Choosing a Turbidimeter
Selecting Standards
Sediment-Turbidity Relationships
Acknowledgments
References
Watershed Scale, Water Quality Monitoring--Water Sample Collection	547	(20)
Randy A. Dahigren
Kenneth W. Tate
Dylan S. Ahearn
Introduction
Theoretical Considerations
Temporal Scales
Spatial Scales
Concentration Versus Load
Water Sample Collection Methodologies
Grab Samples
Automated Pump Samplers
Overview of Complementary Field Instrumentation
References
PART III GROUND WATER MONITORING
Level Measurements in Groundwater Monitoring Wells	567	(26)
Willis Weight
Level Measurements
Defining Level Measurements
Access to Wells
Removing a Well Cap
Negotiating Fences
Measuring Points
How to Take a Level Measurement
Water Level Devices
Steel Tapes
Electrical Tapes (E-tapes)
Chart Recorders
Enhanced Telemetry Systems
Transducers and Data Loggers
Practical Design of Level Measurement Devices
Probe Design
Electronic Cable Design
Other Errors in Level Measurements
Battery Location
Other Practical Applications
Retrieving Lost Equipment
Using E-tapes to Sound Wells
Detangling Equipment
Decontamination of Equipment
Summary
Summary of Manual Methods
Summary of Automated Methods
Laboratory Analysis of Wastewater and Groundwater Samples	593	(12)
Lawrence R. Keefe
Introduction
Overview of Development of Analytical Methods
Selection of Analytical Methods
Available Resources
Overview of Typical Instrumentation
Gas Chromatography
Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy
Flame and Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
Inductively Coupled Plasma
Cold-Vapor Atomic Absorption
Summary of Analytical Methods
Analytical Methods for Organic Constituents
Analytical Methods for Inorganic Constituents
Techniques for Groundwater Sampling	605	(20)
Robert M. Powell
Introduction
Groundwater Sampling Objectives
Groundwater Uncertainty Principle
Schools of Thought on Groundwater Sampling
Traditional Groundwater Sampling
Turbulence Effects on Volatiles and Dissolved Gases
Shifts in Chemical Equilibria of Sample
Dewatering and Aeration of the Well
Confounding Hydrogeologic Effects
Artificially Entrained Turbidity
Concepts and Techniques of Low-Flow and Passive Purging and Sampling
Monitoring Wells
Low-Flow Purging and Sampling
Passive Sampling
References
Bibliography
Soil Permeability and Dispersion Analysis	625	(54)
Aziz Amoozegar
Introduction
Soil Texture and Structure
Soil Water and Soil Water Flow
Hydraulic Conductivity and Permeability
Soil Dispersion
Chemical Diffusion/Dispersion
Theoretical Considerations and Practical Applications
Measurement of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity in Vadose Zone
Constant-Head Well Permeameter Technique
Double-Cylinder Infiltrometer Method
Measurement of Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity in Vadose Zone: Tension Infiltrometer Method
Materials and Equipment
Field Data Collection
Calculation
Comments
Measurement of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity in Saturated Zone
Auger Hole Method
Slug Test
Laboratory Measurement of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
Sample Collection and Preparation
Constant-Head Method
Falling-Head Method
Field Measurement of Air Permeability
Steady-State Field Method
Soil Dispersion
Acknowledgment
References
Passive Sampling	679	(8)
Lee Trotta
Equipment Inventory
Site Conditions
Operating Procedure
Cleaning
Conclusion
Instrumentation in Groundwater Monitoring	687	(14)
David L. Russell
Introduction
Groundwater Theory
Measurements
Ground-Penetrating Radar
Resistivity and Conductivity
Sonic Waves
Downhole Techniques
Other Measurement Instrumentation
Flowmeters
Air Flow
Other Types of Geophysical Measurements
Level Measurement
Microbiological Field Sampling and Instrumentation in Assessment of Soil and Groundwater Pollution	701	(32)
Ann Azadpour-Keeley
Introduction
Subsurface Microbial Composition and Diversity
Microbiological and Molecular Microbial Techniques
Applications and Issues in Subsurface Assessments
Soil Sampling
Subsurface Sampling
Hydrogeology
Microbiology
Sampling Parameters
PART IV WASTEWATER MONITORING
Use of Instrumentation for pH Control	733	(8)
Mark Lang
Introduction
Principle of Operation
Precision and Accuracy
Installation
Flow-Through Installation
In-Tank or Open-Channel Installation
Process Control Using pH Sensors
Feedback Control
Feedforward Control
Batch Processes
References
Automatic Wastewater Sampling Systems	741	(28)
Bob Davis
Jim McCrone
Introduction
Uses of Sampling Systems
Manual Samplers
Automatic Sampling Systems
Sample Intake and Transport Subsystems
Sample Delivery Subsystem
Sample Storage Subsystem
Controls and Power Subsystems
Types of Sampling
Composite Versus Discrete Samples
Flow-Weighted Versus Time-Weighted Samples
Time Composite Sample Method
Flow-Proportional Sample Method
Sequential Composite Sample Method
Continuous Composite Sample Method
Sample Volume
Preserving Sample Stability
Sampling Procedures and Techniques
Quality Assurance and Quality Control Procedures for Sampling
EPA Sample Identification Methods
Custody Transfer and Shipment of Samples
Commonsense Points and Precautions
Troubleshooting
Choosing a System
General Considerations
Sample Integrity
Accuracy
NPDES Criteria
Total Cost of Ownership
Additional Purchase Considerations
Preparing for Future Technologies
Consulting Engineers
Selection of Representative Sampling Sites
Optimum Wastewater Sampling Locations	769	(22)
Bob Davis
James McCrone
Introduction
Permit-Specified Locations
General Note on Sampling Equipment
Site Selection: General Guidelines
When to Choose Multiple Versus Single Sites
Temporary Versus Permanent Sites and Related Equipment
Sampling at Municipal Locations
Municipal Treatment Plants
Pretreatment
Combined Sewer Overflow
Sampling Requirements
Optimum Locations
Specifications of Optimum Sampling Equipment
Sanitary Sewer Overflow
Storm Water
Sampling Requirements
Optimum Locations
Specifications of Optimum Sampling Equipment
Non-Point Source Runoff
Optimum Location
Specifications of Optimum Sampling Equipment
Sampling at Industrial Locations
Industrial Discharge
Sampling Requirements
Optimum Location
Commercial Laboratories
Difficult or Challenging Conditions
Locations to Avoid
General Characteristics
Hazardous Locations
Commonsense Points
References
Wastewater Level Measurement Techniques	791	(26)
Ernest Higginson
Level Control and Environmental Regulations
Common Terms Used in Wastewater Level Instrumentation
Considerations in Selection of Level Instruments
Level Instrument Technologies Used in Wastewater Treatment
Ultrasonic Level
Differential Pressure Sensors
Bubblers
Capacitance
Sight Glasses or Gauges
Infrared
Microwave Radar
Weight/Load Cells
Point Level Floats
Conductance
Level Applications and Choice of Instrument Type
Wet Well and Sump Level Control
Plant Bypass Alarm/Control
Chemical Storage Tank Inventory
Dry-Solids Level Monitoring
Bar Screen Differential Control
Process Basins Including Aeration, Chlorine Contact, Skimmer Tanks, Sedimentation, and Flotation Thickeners
Sludge Blanket Level
Sludge Holding Tanks
Anaerobic Digester Level
Lagoons and Settling Ponds
PART V AIR MONITORING
Data Acquisition Systems for Ambient Air Monitoring	817	(30)
Matthew Eisentraut
Martin Hansen
Introduction
Note About the Authors
Goals
Datalogging and Reporting versus Data Acquisition System
Data
QA/QC
Metadata
Other Basic Concepts and Definitions
Purposes of Collecting and Distributing Data
Brief History
Robustness and Reliability
Recovery from Error
Custom, Generic, and Specialized Components and Products
Air-Monitoring Stations
Location, Communication, and Power
Data-Averaging Options and Flags
Collecting Data and Controlling Analyzers
Personal Computers
Programmable Logic Controllers
Commercial Dataloggers
Station Hardware in Context of Entire System
Note on Multipoint Calibrations
Central System Acquistion and Distribution
Connecting to Stations and Obtaining Data
Corrections to Data and Flagging
Distribution of Data
Alarming
Hardware and Software
Security from Hackers and Viruses
Database Considerations
Reporting
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Air Pollution Control Systems	847	(16)
Randy D. Down
Introduction
Their Purpose
General System Types
Thermal Oxidizers
Oxidation Process
Regenerative Thermal Oxidizers
Catalytic Oxidizers
Rotor Concentrators
Flares
Scrubber Systems
RACT and MACT Analyis
Instrumentation
Glossary
Measurement of Ambient Air Quality	863	(34)
Gerald McGowan
Regulatory Background (EPA)
Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards
Reference and Equivalent Method Determination
Air-Monitoring Networks
Quality Assurance/Quality Control Requirements
Station Siting and Sample Inlet Considerations
Analyzer Requirements, Features, and Options
NOx Monitoring
SO2 Monitoring
O3 Monitoring
CO Monitoring
Particulate Monitoring
Beta Radiometric Measurement
TEOM Measurement Technique
Total Hydrocarbon Monitoring
VOC Monitoring
Open-Path Monitoring
Meteorological Monitoring
Dataloggers and Network Interfaces
Portable Versus Stationary Air-Monitoring Stations
PART VI FLOW MONITORING
Air Flow Measurement	897	(14)
Randy D. Down
Overview
Flowmeter Options
Pitot Tubes
Manometers
Velometers
Vane Anemometers
Hot-Wire Anemometers
Differential Pressure Elements
Orifice Plates and Venturis
Stationary Arrays
Vane Anemometers Versus Thermal Anemometers
Applications
Summary
Glossary
Gas Flow Measurement	911	(34)
Ashok Kumar
Jampana Siva Sailaja
Harish G. Rao
Introduction
Types of Air-Measuring Devices
Volume Meters
Rate Meters
Velocity Meters
Other Devices
Conclusion
References
Non-Open-Channel Flow Measurement	945	(14)
Randy D. Down
Introduction
Differential Pressure Flowmeters
Orifice Plates
Venturis
Pitot Tubes
Vortex-Shedding Flowmeters
Turbine Flowmeters
Magnetic Flowmeters (Magmeters)
Flow Straighteners
Nonintrusive Flowmeters
Flowmeter Selection
Applications
Glossary
Open-Channel Wastewater Flow Measurement Techniques	959	(34)
Bob Davis
Jim McCrone
Introduction
Open Channel
Wastewater
Flow Measurement
Primary Devices
Weirs
Flumes
Secondary Devices
Level-Sensing Technologies
Ultrasonic Transducers
Submerged Pressure Transducers
Bubblers
Floats
Conductive Sensors
Manning Equation
Area-Velocity Flow Measurement
Doppler Meters
Electromagnetic Probes
Spot-Flow Measurement Versus Continuous-Flow Measurement
Dilution Method
Point Velocity Method
Remote Versus On-Site Data Collection
Real-Time Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA): Continuous Versus Intermittent Incremental Polling
Single Versus Multiple Sites
Portable Temporary Meters Versus Permanent Installations
Frequency of Flow Monitoring
Choosing a Flow Monitoring System
Accuracy
Elements of a Flow Monitoring System
Applications of Flow Measurement
Publicly Owned Treatment Works
Sewer System Evaluation Study
Total System Management
Flow Monitoring for Municipal Locations
Treatment
Pretreatment
Combined Sewer Overflow
Sanitary Sewer Overflow
Storm Water
Non-Point Source Runoff
Interagency Billing
Flow Monitoring for Industrial and Other Applications
Industrial Discharge
Storm Water
Hazardous Location Monitoring
Flow Monitoring for Difficult and Challenging Conditions
Low Flow
Multiple Pipes
Dry to Wet (No Flow to Peak Flow)
Full Pipe and Surcharge
High Velocity
Distance
Silting, Solids in Flow, and Ragging
Backup Conditions
Outdoor, Permanent Mount
Commonsense Considerations of Location
References
Compliance Flow Monitoring in Large Stacks and Ducts	993	(22)
Richard Myers
Reasons for Measuring Stack Flow
Application Issues That Affect Some Flow Measurement Technologies
Nonaxial Flow Patterns
Effects of Particulate, Gas Composition, and Contaminants
Wet-Versus Dry-Basis Measurements: Correction to Standard Conditions
Volumetric Measurements Versus Point or Line Average Measurements
Specific Stack Flow Measurement Techniques
Differential-Pressure Systems
Heat Transfer Systems (Thermal Dispersion ``Mass'' Flowmeters)
Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Systems
Optical Scintillation
Conclusions, Recommendations, and Precautions
References
Index	1015