Environmental Toxicology

by David A. Wright , Pamela Welbourn

• ISBN13: 9780521588607
• ISBN10: 052158860X
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2002-03-25
• Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Summary

Environmental Toxicology is a comprehensive introductory textbook dealing with most aspects of the subject, from the molecular to the ecosystem level. Early chapters deal with basic to advanced concepts, methods and approaches. The next discusses the environmental toxicology of individual or groups of substances. The third part addresses complex issues, in which many of the concepts, approaches and substances covered in earlier parts are incorporated. The fourth part includes chapters on risk assessment, rehabilitation and regulatory toxicology. The book concludes with a summary of present and future areas of emphasis. Each chapter contains a comprehensive list of references and further reading, case studies from different jurisdictions, and student exercises.

Table of Contents

Foreword	xvii
Preface	xix
Abbreviations	xxi
Acknowledgements	xxv
The emergence of environmental toxicology as science	1	(20)
The context	1	(1)
The historical background: Classical toxicology, ecotoxicology, and environmental toxicology	2	(3)
Social aspects: The environmental movement	5	(4)
Social aspects: Regulation	9	(7)
Education in environmental toxicology	16	(1)
The role of technology	16	(2)
Questions	18	(1)
References	19	(1)
Further reading	20	(1)
The science of environmental toxicology: Concepts and definitions	21	(49)
The development of environmental toxicology	21	(3)
An historical perspective on the science of environmental toxicology	21	(1)
An evolutionary perspective on environmental toxicology	21	(3)
Assessment of toxicity	24	(26)
The dose-response	25	(6)
The acute toxicity bioassay	31	(1)
Subacute (chronic) toxicity assays	31	(2)
The relationship between acute and chronic toxicity	33	(5)
Statistical considerations	38	(5)
Comparative bioassays	43	(6)
Sediment toxicity assays	49	(1)
Toxicity at the molecular level	50	(15)
Carcinogenesis	52	(6)
Genotoxicity assays	58	(1)
Chromosome studies	59	(1)
The concept of threshold toxicity	59	(2)
Hormesis	61	(1)
Receptors	61	(4)
Questions	65	(1)
References	66	(4)
Routes and kinetics of toxicant uptake	70	(27)
General considerations	70	(1)
Route of toxicant uptake	71	(7)
Skin	72	(1)
Lungs	73	(1)
Gills	74	(2)
Digestive system	76	(1)
Toxicant uptake by plants	77	(1)
Uptake at the tissue and cellular level	78	(16)
Toxicokinetics	80	(1)
Single-compartment model	81	(2)
Two-compartment model	83	(3)
Volume of distribution	86	(1)
Transporter-mediated transport	87	(3)
Lethal body burden (critical body residue)	90	(4)
Questions	94	(1)
References	95	(1)
Further reading	96	(1)
Methodological approaches	97	(121)
Introduction	97	(3)
The general concepts and principles for biological indicators	100	(6)
Tolerance and resistance to potentially toxic substances	106	(10)
Some conundrums related to tolerance in the context of environmental assessment	106	(3)
Selection for tolerance, mechanisms of tolerance, and potential practical applications of the phenomenon	109	(7)
Biological scale	116	(27)
Principles and properties of biochemical markers/biochemical indicators	117	(2)
Some of the more commonly used groups of biochemical markers	119	(8)
Individual species as indicators or monitors	127	(15)
Surrogates for ecosystem indicators	142	(1)
Community and higher level indicators: The ecological approach to toxicology	143	(17)
Interspecies effects of toxic substances	143	(3)
Interaction between and among trophic levels as affected by toxic substances	146	(1)
Population and community end-points	147	(11)
Ecosystem equilibrium. Fact or fiction?	158	(2)
Modelling	160	(14)
The concepts of modelling	160	(4)
Mass balance models	164	(8)
Some other models for use in environmental toxicology	172	(1)
Advantages, limitations; and pitfalls in the modelling for environmental toxicology	173	(1)
Examples of methods and approaches for community or higher level responses	174	(9)
Enclosures: Microcosms and mesocosms	175	(3)
Whole system manipulations	178	(5)
The role of technical advances in methods for environmental toxicology	183	(3)
Choice of approaches	186	(4)
Case studies	190	(17)
Benthic invertebrate communities in metal-contaminated sites exceeding criteria for acceptable sediment quality	190	(3)
Biomarkers of organic chemical contamination in fish from Puget Sound	193	(3)
The effect of coal-ash pollution on bullfrogs: An energy budget approach	196	(1)
Phytotoxicology assessment for Nanticoke Generating Station: Biological indicators and monitors of air pollution	197	(4)
Chesapeake Bay - A study of eutrophication and complex trophic interactions	201	(1)
The use of lentic mesocosms in toxicity testing	202	(1)
The cadmium spike experiment, Experimental Lakes Area	203	(4)
Questions	207	(2)
References	209	(8)
Further reading	217	(1)
Factors affecting toxicity	218	(31)
Introduction	218	(1)
Biotic factors affecting toxicity	219	(2)
Taxonomic group	219	(2)
Age/body size	221	(1)
Abiotic factors affecting toxicity	221	(15)
Temperature	221	(3)
pH and alkalinity	224	(3)
Salinity	227	(2)
Hardness	229	(1)
Chemical mixtures	230	(4)
Dissolved organic carbon	234	(2)
Role of particulates	236	(6)
The importance of food	239	(3)
Quantitative structure-activity relationships	242	(1)
Implications for future environmental regulation	242	(2)
Questions	244	(1)
References	245	(3)
Further reading	248	(1)
Metals and other inorganic chemicals	249	(100)
Introduction	249	(4)
The properties and environmental behaviour of metals and metalloids	253	(16)
General properties of metals and metalloids	253	(1)
The mobilisation, binding, and chemical forms of metals in the environment	254	(2)
The biological availability of metals in the environment	256	(6)
Approaches for determining the chemical species and. Availability of metals	262	(5)
The persistence of metals in the environment	267	(1)
Bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification of metals in the environment	267	(2)
Analytical methods, temporal and spatial distribution of metals and metalloids in the environment	269	(5)
Analytical chemistry	269	(1)
Historical records	270	(1)
Spatial records and source signatures	271	(3)
Mercury	274	(13)
The background to environmental concerns for mercury	274	(1)
The properties, occurrence, and environmental behaviour of mercury	275	(7)
The toxicity of mercury and populations at risk	282	(5)
The reservoir problem	287	(1)
Lead	287	(11)
The occurrence, sources, and properties of lead	287	(3)
The environmental transport and behaviour of lead	290	(1)
Environmental exposure and toxicity of lead	291	(7)
Cadmium	298	(3)
The occurrence, sources, and properties of cadmium	298	(1)
The physiological and ecological behaviour of cadmium	299	(1)
The toxicity of cadmium	300	(1)
Copper	301	(3)
The occurrence, sources, and properties of copper	301	(1)
The physiological and ecological behaviour of copper	302	(1)
The toxicity of copper	302	(2)
Nickel	304	(2)
The occurrence, sources, and properties of nickel	304	(1)
The physiological and ecological behaviour of nickel	305	(1)
The toxicity of nickel	305	(1)
Selenium	306	(2)
The occurrence, sources, and properties of selenium	306	(1)
The physiological and ecological behaviour of selenium	307	(1)
The toxicity of selenium	307	(1)
Phosphorus	308	(5)
The occurrence, sources, and behaviour of phosphorus	308	(1)
The physiological and ecological behaviour of phosphorus	308	(5)
Fluorine	313	(2)
The occurrence, sources, and behaviour of fluorine	313	(1)
The toxicity of fluoride	313	(2)
Questions	315	(1)
References	316	(3)
Further reading	319	(30)
Appendix: Properties of selected metals and metalloids	319	(30)
Organic compounds	349	(59)
The nature of organic compounds	349	(6)
Behaviour and transport	353	(2)
Pesticides	355	(11)
Chlorinated organics	356	(5)
Organophosphate pesticides	361	(1)
Carbamate pesticides	362	(1)
Phenoxyacid herbicides	363	(2)
Bipyridilium herbicides	365	(1)
Triazine herbicides	365	(1)
Polychlorinated biphenyls	366	(4)
Chemistry and effects	366	(3)
Evidence of decline in environmental PCBs	369	(1)
Debenzodioxins and dibenzofurans	370	(2)
Organic chemicals as environmental estrogens (endocrine disrupters)	372	(7)
Rationale	372	(1)
Proposed mechanism for the action of estrogenic compounds	372	(3)
Effect of organic chemicals on male reproductive health	375	(1)
Environmental influences on breast cancer	376	(1)
Peroxisome proliferases	377	(1)
Pharmaceuticals in the environment	378	(1)
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons	379	(2)
Petroleum hydrocarbons	381	(3)
Organotins	384	(1)
Metabolism of organics	385	(11)
Introduction	385	(1)
Phase I reactions	386	(3)
Important mixed function oxidase reactions	389	(5)
Reductions	394	(1)
Phase II reactions	395	(1)
Environmental mobility of organic compounds	396	(3)
Case studies	399	(4)
Pathology of beluga whales in the St. Lawrence estuary, Quebec, Canada	399	(1)
Recovery of double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) in the Great Lakes	400	(1)
Feminisation of fish in English rivers	401	(2)
Questions	403	(2)
References	405	(3)
Ionising radiation	408	(27)
Introduction	408	(1)
Definitions	409	(4)
What is ionising radiation?	409	(3)
Units of measurement	412	(1)
Effects of radiation at the molecular and cellular level	413	(3)
Molecular interactions	413	(2)
Effects of radiation on the immune system	415	(1)
Assessment of risk from radiation	416	(5)
Sources of radiation	421	(9)
Background radiation	421	(1)
Electricity production from nuclear power	422	(5)
Radioisotopes of biological importance	427	(3)
Ecological effects of radiation	430	(1)
Case study	431	(2)
The Chernobyl accident	431	(2)
Questions	433	(1)
References	433	(2)
Complex issues	435	(65)
Introduction and rationale	435	(1)
The mining and smelting of metals	436	(10)
The issue	436	(1)
Processes involved in the extraction and purification of metals	437	(2)
Substances of concern that are mobilised or formed and released during mining, smelting, and other purification processes	439	(1)
The environmental toxicology of metal mining and smelting	440	(6)
Environmental impacts of pulp and paper mills	446	(5)
The issue	446	(1)
Substances of concern I: Nutrient enrichment from pulp mills	447	(1)
Substances of concern II: Chlorinated products of paper pulp	448	(1)
The environmental toxicology of mill effluent	449	(1)
Mitigation: Means for minimising the impacts of pulp mills	450	(1)
Electrical power generation	451	(11)
The issue of producing electricity from fossil fuel	451	(1)
The issue of producing electricity from nuclear energy	452	(6)
The issue of hydroelectric power	458	(1)
Socioeconomic considerations	459	(3)
Global warming	462	(3)
The issue	462	(1)
The greenhouse effect	462	(1)
Substances of concern: Greenhouse gases and their sources	463	(1)
Global climate models	464	(1)
Atmospheric pollution	465	(9)
The issue	465	(1)
Substances of concern: Photochemical oxidants	466	(4)
The environmental toxicology of photochemical oxidants	470	(1)
Substances of concern: Acidic precipitation	471	(1)
The environmental toxicology of acid precipitation	472	(2)
Agriculture	474	(13)
The issue	474	(3)
Substances of concern: Fertilisers	477	(1)
The environmental toxicology of fertilisers	478	(5)
Substances of concern: Pesticides	483	(3)
The environmental toxicology of pesticides	486	(1)
Oil extraction, transportation, and processing	487	(7)
The issue	487	(2)
The environmental toxicology of oil	489	(4)
Oil spill legislation and control	493	(1)
Use of oil dispersants	493	(1)
Case study	494	(1)
The Florida Everglades: A case study of eutrophication related to agriculture and restoration	494	(1)
References	495	(4)
Further reading	499	(1)
Risk assessment	500	(20)
The context and rationale for ecological risk assessment	500	(2)
The methodology of ecological risk assessment and risk management	502	(6)
Risk assessment	502	(6)
Risk management	508	(1)
Site-specific risk assessment	508	(2)
Dealing with uncertainty	510	(1)
Factors triggering risk assessment	511	(1)
Case studies	512	(6)
Risk assessment of the Clark River Superfund site	512	(2)
The Belle Park Island landfill site, Cataraqui Park, Kingston, Ontario: Site-specific risk assessment	514	(2)
An environmental risk assessment for ditallow dimethyl ammonium chloride in the Netherlands	516	(2)
References	518	(1)
Further reading	519	(1)
Recovery, rehabilitation, and reclamation	520	(30)
The context for site contamination and recovery	520	(1)
Exposure and hazard	521	(1)
Site use	522	(1)
Technical approaches	523	(5)
Removal of the source of contamination	523	(2)
Restriction of site use	525	(1)
Reconstruction of the site	526	(1)
Removal of the contaminated material	526	(1)
On-site containment	527	(1)
In situ treatment	527	(1)
Remedial action plans	528	(1)
Responsibilities	529	(1)
Routes for recovery	530	(2)
Recent regulatory approaches to contaminated sites	532	(3)
Case studies	535	(12)
The Thames Estuary: Compound pollution and recovery	535	(3)
Lake Erie recovery	538	(2)
Deacidification trends in Clearwater Lake near Sudbury, Ontario, 1973-1992	540	(2)
The Inco, Mine Tailings reclamation, Sudbury, Canada: Ecosystem reconstruction	542	(3)
Clean-up of lead-contaminated sites: The Ontario urban clean-up experience	545	(2)
References	547	(3)
Regulatory toxicology	550	(41)
Introduction	550	(1)
Possible legal approaches to the regulation of toxic substances	551	(2)
Procedures and policies, including voluntary abatement	553	(16)
Types of approach	553	(3)
Objectives, standards, and related concepts	556	(5)
Risk assessment in a regulatory context	561	(1)
Voluntary systems of regulation	562	(3)
International considerations: Treaties and informal agreements	565	(4)
Definitions	569	(18)
Types of law	569	(1)
The common law	570	(1)
Some general legal terms	571	(1)
Terms used in assessment and regulation of toxic substances	571	(16)
Federal statutes	587	(1)
The United Kingdom and Europe	587	(1)
Canada	587	(1)
The United States of America	587	(1)
Case studies	588	(1)
European convention on long-range transboundary air pollution	588	(1)
Implementation of the Basel Convention: Turning back waste from Hungary	588	(1)
Questions	589	(1)
References	589	(1)
Further reading	590	(1)
An overall perspective, or where to from here?	591	(17)
Introduction	591	(1)
Updating risk assessment	592	(8)
Expressing toxic action	592	(4)
Bioavailability and uptake pathways as management tools	596	(1)
Pathways/vectors of chemical exposure	597	(3)
Future paradigm of hazard assessment	600	(1)
The question of biological scale	600	(2)
Genotoxicity	602	(1)
Society and the environment	603	(2)
References	605	(3)
Glossary	608	(13)
Index	621