Esau's Plant Anatomy Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development

by Evert, Ray F.; Eichhorn, Susan E.

• ISBN13: 9780471738435
• ISBN10: 0471738433
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-09-12
• Publisher: Wiley-Liss

Summary

This revision of the now classic Esau's Plant Anatomy offers a completely updated review of the structure, function, and development of meristems, cells, and tissues of the plant body. The text follows a logical structure-based organization. Beginning with a general overview, chapters then cover the protoplast, cell wall, and meristems, through to phloem, periderm, and secretory structures.

Author Biography

Ray F. Evert, Ph.D. is Professor of Botany and Plant Pathology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
Acknowledgments	xvii
General References	xix
Structure and Development of the Plant Body---An Overview	1	(14)
Internal Organization of the Plant Body	3	(3)
The Body of a Vascular Plant Is Composed of Three Tissue Systems	3	(1)
Structurally Stem, Leaf, and Root Differ Primarily in the Relative Distribution of the Vascular and Ground Tissues	3	(3)
Summary of Types of Cells and Tissues	6	(1)
Development of the Plant Body	7	(5)
The Body Plan of the Plant Is Established during Embryogenesis	7	(4)
With Germination of the Seed, the Embryo Resumes Growth and Gradually Develops into an Adult Plant	11	(1)
References	12	(3)
The Protoplast: Plasma Membrane, Nucleus, and Cytoplasmic Organelles	15	(30)
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells	16	(1)
Cytoplasm	17	(2)
Plasma Membrane	19	(3)
Nucleus	22	(1)
Cell Cycle	23	(2)
Plastids	25	(6)
Chloroplasts Contain Chlorophyll and Carotenoid Pigments	25	(1)
Chromoplasts Contain Only Carotenoid Pigments	26	(2)
Leucoplasts Are Nonpigmented Plastids	28	(1)
All Plastids Are Derived Initially from Proplastids	28	(3)
Mitochondria	31	(2)
Peroxisomes	33	(1)
Vacuoles	34	(2)
Ribosomes	36	(1)
References	37	(8)
The Protoplast: Endomembrane System, Secretory Pathways, Cytoskeleton, and Stored Compounds	45	(20)
Endomembrane System	45	(4)
The Endoplasmic Reticulum Is a Continuous, Three-dimensional Membrane System That Permeates the Entire Cytosol	45	(3)
The Golgi Apparatus Is a Highly Polarized Membrane System Involved in Secretion	48	(1)
Cytoskeleton	49	(1)
Microtubules Are Cylindrical Structures Composed of Tubulin Subunits	49	(3)
Actin Filaments Consist of Two Linear Chains of Actin Molecules in the Form of a Helix	50	(2)
Stored Compounds	52	(1)
Starch Develops in the Form of Grains in Plastids	52	(6)
The Site of Protein Body Assembly Depends on Protein Composition	53	(1)
Oil Bodies Bud from Smooth ER Membranes by an Oleosin-mediated Process	54	(1)
Tannins Typically Occur in Vacuoles but Also Are Found in Cell Walls	55	(1)
Crystals of Calcium Oxalate Usually Develop in Vacuoles but Also Are Found in the Cell Wall and Cuticle	56	(2)
Silica Most Commonly Is Deposited in Cell Walls	58	(1)
References	58	(7)
Cell Wall	65	(38)
Macromolecular Components of the Cell Wall	66	(5)
Cellulose Is the Principal Component of Plant Cell Walls	66	(1)
The Cellulose Microfibrils Are Embedded in a Matrix of Noncellulosic Molecules	67	(1)
Principal Hemicelluoses	67	(1)
Pectins	68	(1)
Proteins	68	(1)
Callose Is a Widely Distributed Cell Wall Polysaccharide	69	(1)
Lignins Are Phenolic Polymers Deposited Mainly in Cell Walls of Supporting and Conducting Tissues	69	(2)
Cutin and Suberin Are Insoluble Lipid Polymers Found Most Commonly in the Protective Surface Tissues of the Plant	71	(1)
Cell Wall Layers	71	(3)
The Middle Lamella Frequently Is Difficult to Distinguish from the Primary Wall	72	(1)
The Primary Wall Is Deposited While the Cell Is Increasing in Size	72	(1)
The Secondary Wall Is Deposited inside the Primary Wall Largely, If Not Entirely, after the Primary Wall Has Stopped Increasing in Surface Area	72	(2)
Pits and Primary Pit-Fields	74	(2)
Origin of Cell Wall during Cell Division	76	(4)
Cytokinesis Occurs by the Formation of a Phragmoplast and Cell Plate	76	(2)
Initially Callose Is the Principal Cell Wall Polysaccharide Present in the Developing Cell Plate	78	(1)
The Preprophase Band Predicts the Plane of the Future Cell Plate	78	(2)
Growth of the Cell Wall	80	(3)
The Orientation of Cellulose Microfibrils within the Primary Wall Influences the Direction of Cell Expansion	82	(1)
When Considering the Mechanism of Wall Growth, It Is Necessary to Distinguish between Growth in Surface (Wall Expansion) and Growth in Thickness	83	(1)
Expansion of the Primary Cell Wall	83	(1)
Cessation of Wall Expansion	84	(1)
Intercellular Spaces	84	(1)
Plasmodesmata	85	(6)
Plasmodesmata May Be Classified as Primary or Secondary According to Their Origin	85	(2)
Plasmodesmata Contain Two Types of Membranes: Plasma Membrane and Desmotubule	87	(1)
Plasmodesmata Enable Cells to Communicate	88	(2)
The Symplast Undergoes Reorganization throughout the Course of Plant Growth and Development	90	(1)
References	91	(12)
Meristems and Differentiation	103	(30)
Meristems	103	(7)
Classification of Meristems	104	(1)
A Common Classification of Meristems Is Based on Their Position in the Plant Body	104	(2)
Meristems Are Also Classified According to the Nature of Cells That Give Origin to Their Initial Cells	106	(1)
Characteristics of Meristematic Cells	106	(1)
Growth Patterns in Meristems	107	(1)
Meristematic Activity and Plant Growth	108	(2)
Differentiation	110	(5)
Terms and Concepts	110	(1)
Senescence (Programmed Cell Death)	111	(2)
Cellular Changes in Differentiation	113	(1)
A Cytologic Phenomenon Commonly Observed in Differentiating Cells of Angiosperms Is Endopolyploidy	113	(1)
One of the Early Visible Changes in Differentiating Tissues Is the Unequal Increase in Cell Size	113	(1)
Intercellular Adjustment in Differentiating Tissue Involves Coordinated and Intrusive Growth	114	(1)
Causal Factors in Differentiation	115	(5)
Tissue Culture Techniques Have Been Useful for the Determination of Requirements for Growth and Differentiation	115	(2)
The Analysis of Genetic Mosaics Can Reveal Patterns of Cell Division and Cell Fate in Developing Plants	117	(1)
Gene Technologies Have Dramatically Increased Our Understanding of Plant Development	117	(2)
Polarity Is a Key Component of Biological Pattern Formation and Is Related to the Phenomenon of Gradients	119	(1)
Plant Cells Differentiate According to Position	119	(1)
Plant Hormones	120	(3)
Auxins	121	(1)
Cytokinins	122	(1)
Ethylene	123	(1)
Abscisic Acid	123	(1)
Gibberellins	123	(1)
References	123	(10)
Apical Meristems	133	(42)
Evolution of the Concept of Apical Organization	134	(2)
Apical Meristems Originally Were Envisioned as Having a Single Initial Cell	134	(1)
The Apical-Cell Theory Was Superseded by the Histogen Theory	134	(1)
The Tunica-Corpus Concept of Apical Organization Applies Largely to Angiosperms	135	(1)
The Shoot Apices of Most Gymnosperms and Angiosperms Show a Cytohistological Zonation	136	(1)
Inquiries into the Identity of Apical Initials	136	(2)
Vegetative Shoot Apex	138	(5)
The Presence of an Apical Cell Is Characteristic of Shoot Apices in Seedless Vascular Plants	139	(1)
The Zonation Found in the Ginkgo Apex Has Served as a Basis for the Interpretation of Shoot Apices in Other Gymnosperms	140	(1)
The Presence of a Zonation Superimposed on a Tunica-Corpus Configuration Is Characteristic of Angiosperm Shoot Apices	141	(2)
The Vegetative Shoot Apex of Arabidopsis thaliana	143	(2)
Origin of Leaves	145	(4)
Throughout the Vegetative Period the Shoot Apical Meristem Produces Leaves in a Regular Order	145	(2)
The Initiation of a Leaf Primordium Is Associated with an Increase in the Frequency of Periclinal Divisions at the Initiation Site	147	(2)
Leaf Primordia Arise at Sites That Are Correlated with the Phyllotaxis of the Shoot	149	(1)
Origin of Branches	149	(3)
In Most Seed Plants Axillary Meristems Originate from Detached Meristems	150	(2)
Shoots May Develop from Adventitious Buds	152	(1)
Root Apex	152	(8)
Apical Organization in Roots May Be either Open or Closed	153	(4)
The Quiescent Center Is Not Completely Devoid of Divisions under Normal Conditions	157	(3)
The Root Apex of Arabidopsis thaliana	160	(2)
Growth of the Root Tip	162	(3)
References	165	(10)
Parenchyma and Collenchyma	175	(16)
Parenchyma	175	(7)
Parenchyma Cells May Occur in Continuous Masses as Parenchyma Tissue or Be Associated with Other Cell Types in Morphologically Heterogeneous Tissues	176	(1)
The Contents of Parenchyma Cells Are a Reflection of the Activities of the Cells	177	(1)
The Cell Walls of Parenchyma Cells May Be Thick or Thin	178	(1)
Some Parenchyma Cells---Transfer Cells---Contain Wall Ingrowths	179	(2)
Parenchyma Cells Vary Greatly in Shape and Arrangement	181	(1)
Some Parenchyma Tissue---Aerenchyma---Contains Particularly Large Intercellular Spaces	182	(1)
Collenchyma	183	(4)
The Structure of the Cell Walls of Collenchyma Is the Most Distinctive Characteristic of This Tissue	184	(1)
Collenchyma Characteristically Occurs in a Peripheral Position	185	(2)
Collenchyma Appears to Be Particularly Well Adapted for Support of Growing Leaves and Stems	187	(1)
References	187	(4)
Sclerenchyma	191	(20)
Fibers	192	(6)
Fibers Are Widely Distributed in the Plant Body	192	(2)
Fibers May Be Divided into Two Large Groups, Xylary and Extraxylary	194	(2)
Both Xylary and Extraxylary Fibers May Be Septate or Gelatinous	196	(1)
Commercial Fibers Are Separated into Soft Fibers and Hard Fibers	197	(1)
Sclereids	198	(4)
Based on Shape and Size, Sclereids May Be Classified into a Number of Types	198	(1)
Sclereids Like Fibers Are Widely Distributed in the Plant Body	199	(1)
Sclereids in Stems	200	(1)
Sclereids in Leaves	200	(1)
Sclereids in Fruits	201	(1)
Sclereids in Seeds	201	(1)
Origin and Development of Fibers and Sclereids	202	(3)
Factors Controlling Development of Fibers and Sclereids	205	(2)
References	207	(4)
Epidermis	211	(44)
Ordinary Epidermal Cells	214	(4)
Epidermal Cell Walls Vary in Thickness	214	(1)
The Most Distinctive Feature of the Outer Epidermal Wall Is the Presence of a Cuticle	215	(3)
Stomata	218	(11)
Stomata Occur on All Aerial Parts of the Primary Plant Body	218	(3)
Guard Cells Are Generally Kidney-shaped	221	(1)
Guard Cells Typically Have Unevenly Thickened Walls with Radially Arranged Cellulose Microfibrils	222	(2)
Blue Light and Abscisic Acid Are Important Signals in the Control of Stomatal Movement	224	(1)
Development of Stomatal Complexes Involves One or More Asymmetric Cell Divisions	225	(3)
Different Developmental Sequences Result in Different Configurations of Stomatal Complexes	228	(1)
Trichomes	229	(8)
Trichomes Have a Variety of Functions	229	(1)
Trichomes May Be Classified into Different Morphological Categories	230	(1)
A Trichome Is Initiated as a Protuberance from an Epidermal Cell	230	(1)
The Cotton Fiber	230	(4)
Root Hairs	234	(1)
The Arabidopsis Trichome	235	(2)
Cell Patterning in the Epidermis	237	(2)
The Spatial Distribution of Stomata and Trichomes in Leaves Is Nonrandom	237	(1)
There Are Three Main Types of Patterning in the Epidermis of Angiosperm Roots	238	(1)
Other Specialized Epidermal Cells	239	(4)
Silica and Cork Cells Frequently Occur Together in Pairs	239	(2)
Bulliform Cells Are Highly Vacuolated Cells	241	(1)
Some Epidermal Hairs Contain Cystoliths	242	(1)
References	243	(12)
Xylem: Cell Types and Developmental Aspects	255	(36)
Cell Types of the Xylem	256	(12)
Tracheary Elements---Tracheids and Vessel Elements---Are the Conducting Cells of the Xylem	256	(4)
The Secondary Walls of Most Tracheary Elements Contain Pits	260	(3)
Vessels Are More Efficient Conduits of Water Than Are Tracheids	263	(3)
Fibers Are Specialized as Supporting Elements in the Xylem	266	(1)
Living Parenchyma Cells Occur in Both the Primary and Secondary Xylem	266	(1)
In Some Species the Parenchyma Cells Develop Protrusions---Tyloses---That Enter the Vessels	267	(1)
Phylogenetic Specialization of Tracheary Elements and Fibers	268	(3)
The Major Trends in the Evolution of the Vessel Element Are Correlated with Decrease in Vessel Element Length	268	(2)
Deviations Exist in Trends of Vessel Element Evolution	270	(1)
Like Vessel Elements and Tracheids, Fibers Have Undergone a Phylogenetic Shortening	271	(1)
Primary Xylem	271	(5)
Some Developmental and Structural Differences Exist between the Earlier and Later Formed Parts of the Primary Xylem	271	(2)
The Primary Tracheary Elements Have a Variety of Secondary Wall Thickenings	273	(3)
Tracheary Element Differentiation	276	(7)
Plant Hormones Are Involved in the Differentiation of Tracheary Elements	280	(1)
Isolated Mesophyll Cells in Culture Can Transdifferentiate Directly into Tracheary Elements	281	(2)
References	283	(8)
Xylem: Secondary Xylem and Variations in Wood Structure	291	(32)
Basic Structure of Secondary Xylem	293	(9)
The Secondary Xylem Consists of Two Distinct Systems of Cells, Axial and Radial	293	(1)
Some Woods Are Storied and Others Are Nonstoried	294	(1)
Growth Rings Result from the Periodic Activity of the Vascular Cambium	294	(3)
As Wood Becomes Older, It Gradually Becomes Nonfunctional in Conduction and Storage	297	(2)
Reaction Wood Is a Type of Wood That Develops in Branches and Learning or Crooked Stems	299	(3)
Woods	302	(10)
The Wood of Conifers Is Relatively Simple in Structure	302	(1)
The Axial System of Conifer Woods Consists Mostly or Entirely of Tracheids	302	(1)
The Rays of Conifers May Consist of Both Parenchyma Cells and Tracheids	303	(1)
The Wood of Many Conifers Contains Resin Ducts	304	(2)
The Wood of Angiosperms Is More Complex and Varied Than That of Conifers	306	(1)
On the Basis of Porosity, Two Main Types of Angiosperm Wood Are Recognized: Diffuse-porous and Ring-porous	307	(2)
The Distribution of Axial Parenchyma Shows Many Intergrading Patterns	309	(1)
The Rays of Angiosperms Typically Contain Only Parenchyma Cells	310	(2)
Intercellular Spaces Similar to the Resin Ducts of Gymnosperms Occur in Angiosperm Woods	312	(1)
Some Aspects of Secondary Xylem Development	312	(3)
Identification of Wood	315	(1)
References	316	(7)
Vascular Cambium	323	(34)
Organization of the Cambium	323	(3)
The Vascular Cambium Contains Two Types of Initials: Fusiform Initials and Ray Initials	323	(2)
The Cambium May Be Storied or Nonstoried	325	(1)
Formation of Secondary Xylem and Secondary Phloem	326	(1)
Initials Versus Their Immediate Derivatives	327	(3)
Developmental Changes	330	(6)
Formation of New Ray Initials from Fusiform Initials or Their Segments Is a Common Phenomenon	332	(3)
Domains Can Be Recognized within the Cambium	335	(1)
Seasonal Changes in Cambial Cell Ultrastructure	336	(2)
Cytokinesis of Fusiform Cells	338	(3)
Seasonal Activity	341	(5)
The Size of the Xylem Increment Produced during One Year Generally Exceeds That of the Phloem	343	(1)
A Distinct Seasonality in Cambial Activity Also Occurs in Many Tropical Regions	344	(2)
Causal Relations in Cambial Activity	346	(2)
References	348	(9)
Phloem: Cell Types and Developmental Aspects	357	(50)
Cell Types of the Phloem	359	(1)
The Angiospermous Sieve-Tube Element	360	(12)
In Some Taxa the Sieve-Tube Element Walls Are Remarkably Thick	361	(3)
Sieve Plates Usually Occur on End Walls	364	(1)
Callose Apparently Plays a Role in Sieve-Pore Development	364	(1)
Changes in the Appearance of the Plastids and the Appearance of P-protein Are Early Indicators of Sieve-Tube Element Development	365	(7)
Nuclear Degeneration May Be Chromatolytic or Pycnotic	372	(1)
Companion Cells	372	(7)
The Mechanism of Phloem Transport in Angiosperms	379	(3)
The Source Leaf and Minor Vein Phloem	382	(4)
Several Types of Minor Veins Occur in Dicotyledonous Leaves	384	(1)
Type 1 Species with Specialized Companion Cells, Termed Intermediary Cells, Are Symplastic Loaders	384	(1)
Species with Type 2 Minor Veins Are Apoplastic Loaders	385	(1)
The Collection of Photoassimilate by the Minor Veins in Some Leaves May Not Involve an Active Step	385	(1)
Some Minor Veins Contain More Than One Kind of Companion Cell	385	(1)
The Minor Veins in Leaf Blades of the Poaceae Contain Two Types of Metaphloem Sieve Tubes	386	(1)
The Gymnospermous Sieve Cell	386	(4)
The Walls of Sieve Cells Are Characterized as Primary	387	(1)
Callose Does Not Play a Role in Sieve-Pore Development in Gymnosperms	387	(1)
Little Variation Exists in Sieve-Cell Differentiation among Gymnosperms	388	(2)
Strasburger Cells	390	(1)
The Mechanism of Phloem Transport in Gymnosperms	390	(1)
Parenchyma Cells	391	(1)
Sclerenchyma Cells	391	(1)
Longevity of Sieve Elements	391	(1)
Trends in Specialization of Sieve-Tube Elements	392	(1)
Sieve Elements of Seedless Vascular Plants	393	(1)
Primary Phloem	393	(5)
References	398	(9)
Phloem: Secondary Phloem and Variations in Its Structure	407	(20)
Conifer Phloem	409	(3)
Angiosperm Phloem	412	(5)
The Patterns Formed by the Fibers Can Be of Taxonomic Significance	413	(2)
Secondary Sieve-Tube Elements Show Considerable Variation in Form and Distribution	415	(2)
Differentiation in the Secondary Phloem	417	(5)
Sclerenchyma Cells in the Secondary Phloem Commonly Are Classified as Fibers, Sclereids, and Fiber-Sclereids	418	(2)
The Conducting Phloem Constitutes Only a Small Part of the Inner Bark	420	(2)
Nonconducting Phloem	422	(2)
The Nonconducting Phloem Differs Structurally from the Conducting Phloem	423	(1)
Dilatation Is the Means by Which the Phloem Is Adjusted to the Increase in Circumference of the Axis Resulting from Secondary Growth	423	(1)
References	424	(3)
Periderm	427	(20)
Occurrence	427	(2)
Characteristics of the Components	429	(4)
The Phellogen Is Relatively Simple in Structure	429	(1)
Several Kinds of Phellem Cells May Arise from the Phellogen	429	(2)
Considerable Variation Exists in the Width and Composition of Phelloderm	431	(2)
Development of Periderm	433	(4)
The Sites of Origin of the Phellogen Are Varied	433	(1)
The Phellogen Is Initiated by Divisions of Various Kinds of Cells	434	(1)
The Time of Appearance of the First and Subsequent Periderms Varies	434	(3)
Morphology of Periderm and Rhytidome	437	(1)
Polyderm	438	(1)
Protective Tissue in Monocotyledons	438	(1)
Wound Periderm	438	(2)
Lenticels	440	(2)
Three Structural Types of Lenticels Are Recognized in Woody Angiosperms	441	(1)
The First Lenticels Frequently Appear under Stomata	442	(1)
References	442	(5)
External Secretory Structures	447	(26)
Salt Glands	449	(2)
Salt Bladders Secrete Ions into a Large Central Vacuole	449	(1)
Other Glands Secrete Salt Directly to the Outside	449	(1)
The Two-celled Glands of the Poaceae	449	(1)
The Multicellular Glands of Eudicotyledons	450	(1)
Hydathodes	451	(1)
Nectaries	452	(7)
The Nectaries of Lonicera japonica Exude Nectar from Unicellular Trichomes	455	(1)
The Nectaries of Abutilon striatum Exude Nectar from Multicellular Trichomes	456	(1)
The Nectaries of Vicia faba Exude Nectar via Stomata	456	(1)
The Most Common Sugars in Nectar Are Sucrose, Glucose, and Fructose	456	(3)
Structures Intermediate between Nectaries and Hydathodes Also Exist	459	(1)
Colleters	459	(2)
Osmophores	461	(1)
Glandular Trichomes Secreting Lipophilic Substances	462	(1)
Glandular Trichome Development	463	(2)
The Glandular Structures of Carnivorous Plants	465	(1)
Stinging Hairs	466	(1)
References	466	(7)
Internal Secretory Structures	473	(30)
Internal Secretory Cells	473	(5)
Oil Cells Secrete Their Oils into an Oil Cavity	475	(1)
Mucilage Cells Deposit Their Mucilage between the Protoplast and the Cellulosic Cell Wall	476	(1)
Tannin Is the Most Conspicuous Inclusion in Numerous Secretory Cells	477	(1)
Secretory Cavities and Ducts	478	(5)
The Best-Known Secretory Ducts Are the Resin Ducts of Conifers	478	(1)
Development of Secretory Cavities Appears to Be Schizogenous	479	(2)
Secretory Ducts and Cavities May Arise under the Stimulus of Injury	481	(1)
Kino Veins Are a Special Type of Traumatic Duct	482	(1)
Laticifers	483	(10)
On the Basis of Their Structure, Laticifers Are Grouped in Two Major Classes: Articulated and Nonarticulated	484	(2)
Latex Varies in Appearance and in Composition	486	(1)
Articulated and Nonarticulated Laticifers Apparently Differ from One Another Cytologically	487	(2)
Laticifers Are Widely Distributed in the Plant Body, Reflecting Their Mode of Development	489	(1)
Nonarticulated Laticifers	489	(2)
Articulated Laticifers	491	(2)
The Principal Source of Commercial Rubber Is the Bark of the Para Rubber Tree, Hevea brasiliensis	493	(2)
The Function of Laticifers Is Not Clear	495	(1)
References	495	(8)
Addendum: Other Pertinent References Not Cited in the Text	503	(18)
Glossary	521	(20)
Author Index	541	(26)
Subject Index	567