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9780878939169

The Evolution of Developmental Pathways

by
  • ISBN13:

    9780878939169

  • ISBN10:

    0878939164

  • Edition: 1st
  • Format: Hardcover
  • Copyright: 2001-12-10
  • Publisher: Sinauer Associates is an imprint of Oxford University Press

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Summary

The contemporary field of evolutionary developmental biology is still a new subdiscipline of evolutionary biology, but it deals with some very old questions: how shape and form in complex organisms change during evolution. Integral to this subject are developmental genetics and molecular biology, and, increasingly, systematics, paleontology, and population genetics as well. The integration of the latter three subjects into evolutionary developmental biology is still in its early stages, however. A principal aim of this book is to introduce upper-level students and biologists in other disciplines to this field, and to present it within its larger context.

Despite the excitement about "evo-devo," it is a field that still lacks a set of formal principles of the sort that, for example, inform and give shape to population genetics and systematics. The second principal purpose of this book, therefore, is to suggest a useful general framework for thinking about developmental evolution. The book's organizing concept is that of the genetic pathway, the sequence of requisite genetic and molecular activities that underlie a developmental process. From this perspective, the author explores the nature of the genetic, molecular, and selectional events that alter these pathways, yielding developmental change.

The book is organized into three major sections. The first five chapters deal with the history of the field, the data it employs, and basic ideas that inform current research. The next three chapters are devoted to case studies in developmental evolution, starting with examples of currently favored model systems (e.g., Drosophila melanogaster) and building outward. Six subsequent chapters address questions and problems in the field and key questions for the future. Three appendices on specialized topics and a glossary complete the book.





Author Biography


Adam Wilkins is Editor of the journal BioEssays. He earned a B.A. from Reed College, and a Ph.D. in Genetics from the University of Washington, and completed post-doctoral fellowships at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the University of Wisconsin. A full-time academic until 1983, he has since held visiting professorships or lectureships at the University of Washington, the University of Wisconsin, and the National University of Singapore. Dr. Wilkins is the author of two editions of Genetic Analysis of Animal Development (John Wiley & Sons, 1986 & 1993), and co-editor of Molecular Evolution (Jones and Bartlett, 1984, with E. A. Terzaghi and D. Penny) and Molecular Model Systems in the Lepidoptera (Cambridge University Press, 1995, with M. Goldsmith). His particular research interest, at present, is the evolution of sex determination pathways.

Table of Contents

PART I: CONTEXT AND FOUNDATIONS 1(170)
Evolution and Embryology: A Brief History of a Complex Pas de Deux
3(32)
Introduction: Birth of a Scientific Field
3(5)
Cloning Hox Genes
6(2)
Identifying the Paradox; Defining a Framework
8(3)
Contemplating a History
11(2)
Morphology and Embryology in the 19th Century
13(6)
Darwin's ``Revolution''
19(3)
The Fractured Mirror: Biology between 1900 and the 1930s
22(2)
The Modern Synthesis and the Further Eclipse of Embryology
24(7)
Specialization within Biology
25(1)
Typological versus Population-Based Thinking
25(1)
Large versus Small Differences
25(1)
Nucleus versus Cytoplasm
26(1)
Fisher's Argument on the Importance of Mutations of Small Versus Large Effect
27(1)
Personalities
28(3)
Evolutionary Developmental Biology
31(3)
Summary
34(1)
Information Sources for Reconstructing Developmental Evolution: I. Fossils
35(30)
Introduction: Two Kinds of Evidence
35(2)
The Essentiality of Fossil Evidence
37(4)
On Geochronology and Stratigraphy
39(2)
Expanding the Known Universe of Developmental Evolutionary Events
41(1)
Phylogenetic Reconstruction
42(9)
Phylogenetic Systematics
42(4)
Cladistics, Fossils, and the Mapping of Events
46(5)
Identifying Changes in Developmental Processes: Examples from Dinosaur Evolution
51(6)
Terminological Shifts in the Meaning of Heterochrony
54(3)
Fossil Evidence and the Elucidation of ``Novelties''
57(7)
Key Innovations
61(3)
Summary
64(1)
Information Sources for Reconstructing Developmental Evolution: II. Comparative Molecular Studies
65(34)
Introduction: Tracing Genetic Changes in Development
65(1)
Gene Evolution and Developmental Evolution: A Complex Set of Relationships
66(5)
The Analytical Problem: Identifying Orthologues
67(1)
The Substantive Issue: Changing Gene Functions in Evolution
67(1)
Gene Duplications and Gene Families
68(3)
The Analytical Opportunity: Molecular Clocks
71(1)
Direct Development in Sea Urchins and Frogs: Mapping Evolutionary Changes in Early Development
71(16)
Direct Development and the Overthrow of a Long-Held Supposition
80(1)
Direct Development as a Window on Mechanisms of Early Embryogenesis
81(4)
Charting the Changes in Genetic Circuitry
85(2)
The Craniate Head: Reconstructing the Cellular and Genetic Sources of an Evolutionary Novelty
87(11)
Comparative Anatomical Studies
91(1)
Gene Expression Studies
91(5)
Genetic Bases of the Evolutionary Elaboration of Structure
96(2)
Summary
98(1)
Genetic Pathways and Networks in Development
99(28)
Introduction: Developmental and Genetic Pathways
99(2)
Biochemical Pathways: From Garrod to Beadle and Ephrussi
101(4)
Developmental Pathways: Waddington's Contribution
105(3)
Microbial Genetics and the Birth of Saturation Mutant Hunting
108(2)
Genetic Pathways for Pattern Formation and Sex Determination
110(4)
Pathway Analysis: The Perils of Simplicity
114(4)
Functional Redundancy
114(3)
Pleiotropy
117(1)
Cautionary Notes in Thinking about Genetic Pathways
118(1)
From Pathways to Networks
118(4)
Does the Genetic Pathway Concept Apply Only to Highly Canalized Systems?
122(3)
Summary
125(2)
Conserved Genes and Functions in Animal Development
127(44)
Introduction: Visible Diversity versus Shared Genetic Identities
127(2)
Hox Genes and Antero-Posterior Patterning
129(8)
Gene and Cluster Size
135(1)
Cluster Number
135(1)
Gene Order and Content
136(1)
Developmental Roles
136(1)
Dorso-Ventral Patterning
137(4)
Conservation of Genes and Gene Function in the CNS
141(4)
Ectopic Expression
144(1)
Conservation of Genes and Gene Functions in Heart and Eye Development
145(5)
Conserved Heart Development Genes
145(3)
Pax6 and the Evolution of Eye Structures
148(2)
Master Control Genes: Pax6 as a Test Case
150(5)
Mechanisms for Conservation of Role that Permit the Acquisition of New Functions
155(10)
Dissociating Gene Controls and Morphological Evolution: The Problem of Homology
165(3)
Implications for Reconstructing the Urbilaterian Ancestor
168(1)
Summary
168(3)
PART II: CASE STUDIES IN PATHWAY EVOLUTION 171(136)
Evolving Developmental Pathways: I. Sex Determination
173(32)
Introduction: Sex Determination Systems
173(3)
The Diversity of GSD Systems
175(1)
Two Hypotheses about the Evolution of Sex Determination Pathways
176(7)
Comparative Information on Sex Determination Pathways
183(9)
Sex Determination in Mammals
183(7)
Sex Determination in Insects
190(1)
Molecular Tests of Differential Splicing
190(2)
How Might the Drosophila Sex Determination Pathway Have Originated?
192(8)
Is There a Universal Downstream Control Gene for Sex Determination in the Bilaterian Metazoa?
200(2)
The Rapidity of Evolution of Sex Determination Genes
202(2)
Might Minor Secondary Roles of Sex Determination Genes Contribute to Their Rapid Molecular Evolution?
203(1)
Summary
204(1)
Evolving Developmental Pathways: II. Segmental Patterning in Insects
205(50)
Introduction: Pattern and Process
205(2)
Developmental Biology of Segmentation in Drosophila
207(3)
Molecular Genetics of Segmental Patterning in Drosophila
210(15)
Strategy of Analysis
210(3)
General Features of the System
213(3)
Maternal Gradients
216(2)
The Zygotic Gene Expression Cascade
218(7)
Comparative Data and the Evolutionary Origins of the Drosophila System
225(16)
Modes of Segmentation in the Insects and a Simple Evolutionary Hypothesis
225(3)
Comparative Studies: Patterns of Conservation and Some Significant Changes
228(8)
Relationships Between Pair-Rule and Every-Segment Expression Patterns
236(4)
Extracting Some General Conclusions
240(1)
The Diversity of Pair-Rule Promoter Structure: Evidence of a Complex History
241(6)
Dissecting A Complex Promoter into its Component Regulatory Regions
242(5)
Toward an Evolutionary Scenario for the Origins of the Long Germ Band System
247(6)
Initial Considerations
247(1)
An Evolutionary Scenario
248(5)
Summary
253(2)
Evolving Developmental Pathways: III. Two Organ Fields: The Nematode Vulva and the Tetrapod Limb
255(52)
Introduction: Embryonic Fields
255(3)
The Nematode Vulva
258(15)
Developmental and Molecular Biology of the C. elegans Vulva
258(3)
Signals in Vulval Cell Specification
261(3)
Early Cell Fate Specification
264(2)
Comparative Studies of Vulval Development and Evolutionary Inferences
266(7)
The Tetrapod Limb
273(25)
The Tetrapod Limb as Evolutionary Touchstone
273(5)
Basic Cellular and Developmental Biology of the Tetrapod Limb
278(2)
Experimental Characterization of Signaling Centers
280(2)
Critical Gene Activities
282(6)
Functional Tests
288(4)
Evolution of the Tetrapod Limb
292(6)
Connections between the Genetic Architecture of Arthropod Appendages and Vertebrate Limbs: What Do They Signify?
298(4)
Parallels in the Construction and Evolution of the Nematode Vulva and the Tetrapod Limb
302(2)
Summary
304(3)
PART III: CONUNDRUMS 307(218)
Genetic Source Materials for Developmental Evolution
309(54)
Introduction: Gene Recruitment
309(4)
Categories of Genetic Variation
313(3)
Primary Recruitment Events and Promoter Evolution
316(11)
Mutation in, and Evolution of, Promoter Sequences
316(7)
Examples of Enhancer Mutations that Alter Development
323(1)
Creation of New cis-Acting Enhancer Sites for Transcriptional Control
324(3)
Multiplying Resources for Gene Recruitment: Gene Duplications and the Growth of Gene Families
327(21)
Processes that Shape Gene Family Evolution
329(4)
The Evolution of Sequence Diversity and New Functions within the Hox Genes
333(5)
Gene Duplication and Stabilization of Developmental Roles
338(7)
Polyploidy as the Extreme Version of Gene Duplication
345(2)
Gene and Genome Duplications as Resources for Genetic Pathway Evolution
347(1)
A Note on Modularity and Entrainment, or What the Classic Neo-Darwinian View Missed
348(2)
Hiding and Sorting Variation: Canalization and Genetic Assimilation
350(10)
Summary
360(3)
Costs and Constraints: Factors that Retard and Channel Developmental Evolution
363(30)
Introduction: The Winners' Circle
363(4)
Selective Processes and Developmental Evolution
367(2)
Genetic Variation as a Rate-Limiting Factor in Gene Recruitment and Developmental Evolution
369(14)
New Genetic Variation as Rate-Setter of Evolutionary Change?
369(2)
Gene Recruitment: Potential Costs and Barriers
371(1)
Enhancer Properties and Their Implications for Gene Recruitment
372(5)
Partitioning the Selection Coefficient
377(2)
Gene Products Caught in Adaptive Conflict
379(2)
Is There a Selective Hurdle in Initial Expression of Recruited Transcription Factor Genes?
381(2)
Physical, Physiological, and Developmental Constraints
383(9)
Summary
392(1)
On Growth and Form: The Developmental and Evolutionary Genetics of Morphogenesis
393(48)
Introduction: The Influence of Physical Forces
393(5)
Physical Factors in Morphogenesis and the Roles of Gene Products
398(21)
From Matrix Products to Morphogenesis
398(9)
Morphogenesis of Cell Masses: Physical Factors and Genetic Influences
407(6)
Evolutionary Changes in Morphogenetic Processes
413(2)
Influences of Gene Products on Morphogenesis: Generalizing the Picture
415(4)
From Morphometrics to Evolutionary Developmental Genetics
419(15)
Quantitative Analyses of Growth
420(2)
Allometry and Evolutionary Questions
422(3)
Moving Into the Cell: The Cell Cycle
425(2)
Charting the Complexity of Internal and External Controls of the Cell Cycle and of Cell Proliferation
427(2)
Moving toward a Developmental Genetics of Growth Control
429(5)
Synthesizing Morphometrics, Genetics, Development, and Evolution
434(5)
Evolutionary Quantitative Genetics and Growth Control
434(1)
Quantitative Trait Loci
435(1)
The Development of Teeth as a Paradigm of Morphological Evolution
436(3)
Summary
439(2)
Speciation and Developmental Evolution
441(26)
Introduction: Two Linked Phenomena
441(3)
Speciation, Reproductive Isolation, and Developmental Change
444(3)
The Allopatric versus Sympatric Speciation Debate and Developmental Evolution
447(3)
Sexual Selection and Developmental Evolution
450(9)
Sexual Selection and Sympatric Speciation
450(5)
Intersecting Genetic Controls of Sex Determination and Morphological Systems
455(4)
The Bateson--Dobzhansky--Muller Model of Speciation and a Recent Molecular Perspective
459(2)
Microevolution versus Macroevolution: How Different Are They?
461(4)
The Genetic Basic of Species versus Larger Taxonomic Differences
462(2)
Microevolution and Macroevolution as Dynamic Processes
464(1)
Summary
465(2)
Metazoan Origins and the Beginnings of Complex Animal Evolution
467(36)
Introduction: A Few Rays of Light
467(3)
Fossil Evidence on the Beginnings of Animal Life
470(8)
Dating the Origins of the Metazoa by Molecular Clock Methods
478(4)
The New Molecular Phylogenetics of the Metazoa
482(5)
Stages of Complexity Increase in Early Metazoan Evolution
487(7)
Thinking about the Origins of the Bilateria
494(6)
The ``Roundish Flatworm'': A View from the Fossil Beds of the Neoproterozoic
494(1)
Early Metazoans as Trochophore Larvae and the Origination of Set-Aside Cells: A View from Comparative Developmental Biology
494(5)
Planula Larvae as the Evolutionary Platform for the Bilateria: A View from a Systematics Perspective
499(1)
Summary
500(3)
The Coming Evolution of Evolutionary Developmental Biology
503(22)
Introduction: An Analytical Framework
503(2)
Genetic Pathways and Networks: How Useful a Framework?
505(2)
Three Major Questions for the Future
507(3)
How Do Developmental Novelties Arise in Evolution?
508(1)
How Do Microevolutionary Processes Differ from Macroevolutionary Processes?
509(1)
What Factors Determine Rates of Developmental Evolution?
509(1)
New Technologies and New Departures
510(13)
Detailed Promoter Comparisons of Orthologous Genes with Different Functions
511(1)
Mapping Patterns of Total Gene Expression Change
512(2)
Quasi-Genetic Functional Tests
514(3)
Searches for Functional Relationships between Molecules: The Two-Hybrid Method
517(1)
The ``Two-Hybrid'' Method for Detecting New Functional Interactions
518(1)
Prospects for Applying Functional Tests to Evolutionary Developmental Questions
519(1)
Additional Departures
519(3)
Synthesizing Paleontology and Molecular Genetic Studies
522(1)
Summary
523(2)
Appendix 1: Genetic Nomenclature 525(2)
Appendix 2: Reconstructing Phylogenetic History with Cladistics 527(3)
Appendix 3: Molecular Clocks 530(3)
Glossary 533(8)
References 541(40)
Index 581

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