Experimental Methodology

by Christensen, Larry B.

• ISBN13: 9780205393695
• ISBN10: 0205393691
• Edition: 9th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2007-01-01
• Publisher: Allyn & Bacon

Summary

This text presents a reader-friendly introduction to the basic principles of experimental psychological research. Experimental Methodology is organized so that each chapter focuses on a specific step in the research process. This text provides an instruction in the experimental research and an introduction to non-experimental approaches such as ex-post facto research, correlational research, and survey research.

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?	1	(29)
Chapter Preview	3	(1)
Introduction	3	(2)
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge	5	(5)
Tenacity	5	(1)
Intuition	6	(1)
Authority	7	(1)
Rationalism	8	(1)
Empiricism	8	(2)
Science	10	(3)
Identifying the Problem	10	(1)
Designing the Experiment	11	(1)
Conducting the Experiment	11	(1)
Analyzing the Data	12	(1)
Communicating the Research Results	13	(1)
Advantage of the Scientific Method	13	(1)
Characteristics of the Scientific Approach	13	(5)
Control	14	(1)
Operationism	15	(2)
Replication	17	(1)
Objectives of Science	18	(2)
Description	18	(1)
Explanation	19	(1)
Prediction	19	(1)
Control	19	(1)
Basic Assumption Underlying Science	20	(2)
Reality in Nature	21	(1)
Rationality	21	(1)
Regularity	21	(1)
Discoverability	21	(1)
The Role of Theory in Science	22	(1)
The Role of the Scientist in Science	23	(3)
Curiosity	24	(1)
Patience	24	(1)
Objectivity	24	(1)
Change	25	(1)
Summary	26	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	27	(1)
Related Internet Sites	27	(1)
Practice Test	27	(2)
Challenge Exercises	29	(1)
CHAPTER 2 Nonexperimental Research Approaches	30	(34)
Chapter Preview	32	(1)
Introduction	32	(1)
Nonexperimental Quantitative Research	33	(18)
Correlational Study	34	(2)
Ex Post Facto Study	36	(2)
Longitudinal Study and Cross-Sectional Study	38	(2)
Naturalistic Observation	40	(2)
Meta Analysis	42	(2)
The Survey	44	(7)
Methods of Data Collection	47	(1)
Questionnaire Construction	48	(1)
Response Bias	49	(2)
Qualitative Research	51	(9)
Phenomenology	53	(1)
Ethnography	54	(4)
Ethnographic Methods	55	(1)
Entry and Group Acceptance	55	(1)
Data Collection, Analysis, Report Writing	56	(2)
Case Study	58	(2)
Summary	60	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	60	(1)
Related Internet Sites	61	(1)
Practice Tests	62	(1)
Challenge Exercises	63	(1)
CHAPTER 3 The Experimental Research Approach	64	(20)
Chapter Preview	66	(1)
Introduction	66	(1)
Causation	66	(6)
Cause	67	(1)
Effect	67	(1)
Causal Relationship	67	(5)
The Psychological Experiment	72	(6)
Advantages of the Experimental Approach	74	(1)
Causal Inference	74	(1)
Control	75	(1)
Ability to Manipulate Variables	75	(1)
Disadvantages of the Experimental Approach	75	(3)
Does Not Test Effects of Nonmanipulated Variables	75	(1)
Artificiality	76	(1)
Inadequate Method of Scientific Inquiry	77	(1)
Experimental Research Settings	78	(2)
Field Experimentation	78	(1)
Laboratory Experimentation	79	(1)
Summary	80	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	81	(1)
Related Internet Sites	81	(1)
Practice Test	82	(1)
Challenge Exercises	83	(1)
CHAPTER 4 Problem Identification and Hypothesis Formation	84	(28)
Chapter Preview	86	(1)
Introduction	86	(1)
Sources of Research Ideas	87	(4)
Everyday Life	87	(1)
Practical Issues	88	(1)
Past Research	89	(1)
Theory	90	(1)
Gender Bias in Research Ideas	91	(1)
Ideas Not Capable of Scientific Investigation	92	(1)
Review of the Literature	92	(11)
Getting Started	93	(1)
Defining Objectives	94	(1)
Doing the Search	94	(7)
Books	94	(1)
Psychological Journals	95	(1)
Computerized or Electronic Databases	95	(2)
Internet Resources	97	(4)
Obtaining Resources	101	(2)
Additional Information Sources	103	(1)
Feasibility of the Study	103	(2)
Formulating the Research Problem	105	(1)
Defining a Research Problem	105	(1)
Specificity of the Question	106	(1)
Formulating Hypotheses	106	(2)
Summary	108	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	109	(1)
Related Internet Sites	109	(1)
Practice Test	110	(1)
Challenge Exercises	111	(1)
CHAPTER 5 Ethics	112	(50)
Chapter Preview	114	(1)
Introduction	114	(1)
Research Ethics: What Are They?	115	(6)
Relationship between Society and Science	115	(1)
Professional Issues	116	(3)
Treatment of Research Participants	119	(2)
Ethical Dilemmas	121	(5)
Ethical Guidelines	126	(6)
Respect for Persons and Their Autonomy	128	(1)
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence	129	(1)
Justice	130	(1)
Trust	131	(1)
Fidelity and Scientific Integrity	131	(1)
APA Ethical Standards for Research	132	(4)
Issues Raised by the APA Code of Ethics	136	(14)
Institutional Approval	136	(1)
Informed Consent	137	(4)
Dispensing with Informed Consent	137	(2)
Informed Consent and Minors	139	(1)
Passive versus Active Consent	139	(2)
Deception	141	(5)
Debriefing	146	(2)
Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation	148	(1)
Confidentiality versus Anonymity	149	(1)
Ethics of Animal Research	150	(7)
Animal Rights	150	(3)
Alternatives to the Use of Animals	153	(1)
Safeguards in the Use of Animals	153	(1)
Animal Research Guidelines	154	(3)
Summary	157	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	158	(1)
Related Internet Sites	159	(1)
Practice Test	159	(1)
Challenge Exercises	160	(2)
CHAPTER 6 Variables Used in Experimentation	162	(32)
Chapter Preview	163	(1)
Introduction	164	(1)
Types of Variables	165	(1)
The Independent Variable	166	(10)
Variation	166	(3)
Presence versus Absence	166	(1)
Amount of a Variable	167	(1)
Type of a Variable	168	(1)
Establishing Variation in the Independent Variable	169	(4)
Experimental Manipulation	170	(2)
Individual Difference Manipulation	172	(1)
Constructing the Independent Variable	173	(2)
Number of Independent Variables	175	(1)
The Dependent Variable	176	(5)
Response to be Used as the Dependent Variable	178	(1)
Reducing Participant Error	179	(1)
Number of Dependent Variables	180	(1)
Reliability and Validity of the Dependent and Independent Variables	181	(9)
Reliability	182	(3)
Reliability and the Independent Variable	182	(1)
Reliability and the Dependent Variable	182	(1)
Measurement Error	183	(1)
Assessment of Reliability with Standardized Tests	184	(1)
Validity	185	(13)
Content Validity	186	(1)
Criterion-Related Validity	186	(1)
Construct Validity	187	(3)
Summary	190	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	190	(1)
Related Internet Sites	190	(1)
Practice Test	191	(1)
Challenge Exercises	192	(2)
CHAPTER 7 Validity in Experimental Research	194	(37)
Chapter Preview	196	(1)
Introduction	196	(1)
Statistical Conclusion Validity	197	(1)
Internal Validity	198	(9)
Threats to Internal Validity	199	(8)
History	200	(1)
Maturation	201	(1)
Instrumentation	202	(1)
Testing	202	(1)
Regression Artifact	203	(1)
Attrition	204	(1)
Selection	205	(1)
Additive and Interactive Effects	205	(2)
Construct Validity	207	(10)
Threats to Construct Validity	207	(10)
Reactivity to the Experimental Situation	208	(3)
Experimenter Effects	211	(6)
External Validity	217	(6)
Population Validity	218	(2)
Ecological Validity	220	(1)
Temporal Validity	221	(1)
Treatment Variation Validity	222	(1)
Outcome Validity	223	(1)
Cautions in Evaluating the External Validity of Experiments	223	(1)
Relationship between Internal and External Validity	224	(1)
Summary	225	(3)
Key Terms and Concepts	228	(1)
Related Internet Sites	228	(1)
Practice Test	228	(2)
Challenge Exercise	230	(1)
CHAPTER 8 Control Techniques	231	(36)
Chapter Preview	233	(1)
Introduction	233	(1)
Randomization	234	(6)
Matching	240	(8)
Matching by Holding Variables Constant	240	(2)
Matching by Building the Extraneous Variable into the Research Design	242	(1)
Matching by Yoked Control	243	(1)
Matching by Equating Participants	244	(4)
Precision Control	244	(2)
Frequency Distribution Control	246	(2)
Counterbalancing	248	(6)
Intrasubject Counterbalancing: The ABBA Technique	250	(2)
Intragroup Counterbalancing	252	(2)
Incomplete Counterbalancing	252	(2)
Control of Participant Effects	254	(4)
Double Blind Placebo Model	254	(1)
Deception	255	(1)
Procedural Control, or Control of Participant Interpretation	256	(2)
Control of Experimenter Effects	258	(4)
Control of Recording Errors	258	(1)
Control of Experimenter Attribute Errors	259	(1)
Control of Experimenter Expectancy Error	260	(11)
The Blind Technique	260	(1)
The Partial Blind Technique	261	(1)
Automation	262	(1)
Likelihood of Achieving Control	262	(1)
Summary	263	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	264	(1)
Related Internet Sites	264	(1)
Practice Test	265	(1)
Challenge Exercises	266	(1)
CHAPTER 9 Experimental Research Design	267	(32)
Chapter Preview	269	(1)
Introduction	269	(2)
Research Designs with Threats to Internal Validity	271	(4)
One-Group Posttest-Only Design	271	(1)
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design	272	(2)
Nonequivalent Posttest-Only Design	274	(1)
Requirements of Experimental Research Designs	275	(2)
Pretesting Participants	277	(1)
Experimental Research Designs	278	(15)
Posttest-Only Design	279	(12)
Between-Participants Posttest-Only Design	279	(10)
Within-Participants Posttest-Only Design	289	(1)
Combining Between- and Within-Participants Designs	290	(1)
Pretest-Posttest Design	291	(2)
Choice of a Research Design	293	(1)
Research Question	293	(1)
Control	293	(1)
Between-versus Within-Participants Design	293	(1)
Summary	294	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	295	(1)
Related Internet Sites	295	(1)
Practice Test	296	(1)
Challenge Exercises	297	(2)
CHAPTER 10 Quasi-Experimental Designs	299	(25)
Chapter Preview	301	(1)
Introduction	301	(2)
Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design	303	(9)
Outcomes with Rival Hypotheses	306	(1)
Outcome I: First Increasing Treatment Effect	306	(3)
Outcome II: Increasing Treatment and Control Groups	309	(1)
Outcome III: Second Increasing Treatment Effect	310	(1)
Outcome IV: Crossover Effect	311	(1)
Causal Inference from the Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design	311	(1)
Time-Series Design	312	(5)
Interrupted Time-Series Design	313	(4)
Regression Discontinuity Design	317	(3)
Summary	320	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	320	(1)
Related Internet Sites	321	(1)
Practice Test	321	(1)
Challenge Exercises	322	(2)
CHAPTER 11 Single-Case Research Designs	324	(29)
Chapter Preview	326	(1)
Introduction	326	(3)
Single-Case Designs	329	(14)
ABA Design	330	(4)
Interaction Design	334	(4)
Multiple-Baseline Design	338	(3)
Changing-Criterion Design	341	(2)
Methodological Considerations in Using Single-Case Designs	343	(3)
Baseline	343	(2)
Changing One Variable at a Time	345	(1)
Length of Phases	345	(1)
Criteria for Evaluating Change	346	(2)
Experimental Criterion	346	(1)
Therapeutic Criterion	346	(2)
Rival Hypotheses	348	(1)
Summary	349	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	350	(1)
Related Internet Sites	350	(1)
Practice Test	351	(1)
Challenge Exercises	352	(1)
CHAPTER 12 Data Collection	353	(21)
Chapter Preview	355	(1)
Introduction	355	(1)
Research Participants	355	(3)
Obtaining Animals (Rats)	356	(1)
Obtaining Human Participants	356	(2)
Gender Bias	358	(1)
Sample Size	358	(2)
Power	359	(1)
Apparatus and/or Instruments	360	(2)
Instructions	362	(1)
Scheduling of Research Participants	363	(1)
Procedure	364	(1)
Pilot Study	364	(1)
Institutional Approval	365	(1)
Data Collection	366	(1)
Consent to Participate	367	(1)
Debriefing, or Postexperimental Interview	368	(3)
Debriefing Functions	369	(1)
How to Debrief	369	(2)
Summary	371	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	372	(1)
Related Internet Sites	372	(1)
Practice Test	372	(1)
Challenge Exercises	373	(1)
CHAPTER 13 Hypothesis Testing	374	(35)
Chapter Preview	376	(1)
Introduction	376	(1)
Testing the Hypothesis	377	(2)
The Mean	379	(1)
Standard Deviation	380	(2)
Selection of a Statistical Test	382	(1)
Independent Samples t-Test	383	(1)
Significance Level	384	(4)
Analysis of Variance	388	(15)
One-Way Analysis of Variance	388	(5)
Analysis of Variance Summary Table	393	(1)
Interpreting the Results of the Analysis of Variance	394	(1)
Two-Way Analysis of Variance	395	(6)
Rejecting versus Failing to Reject the Null Hypothesis	401	(2)
Potential Errors in the Statistical Decision-Making Process	403	(2)
Summary	405	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	406	(1)
Related Internet Sites	406	(1)
Practice Test	406	(1)
Challenge Exercise	407	(2)
CHAPTER 14 The Research Report	409	(54)
Introduction	410	(2)
The APA Format	412	(34)
Preparation of the Research Report	446	(9)
Writing Style	446	(2)
Language	448	(2)
Specificity	448	(1)
Labels	448	(1)
Participation	448	(1)
Specific Issues	449	(1)
Editorial Style	450	(5)
Italics	450	(1)
Abbreviations	450	(1)
Headings	450	(1)
Quotations	451	(1)
Numbers	451	(1)
Physical Measurements	451	(1)
Presentation of Statistical Results	451	(1)
Tables	452	(1)
Figures	453	(1)
Figure Captions	453	(1)
Reference Citations	454	(1)
Reference List	454	(1)
Typing	455	(1)
Ordering of Manuscript Pages	455	(1)
Submission of the Research Report for Publication	455	(3)
Acceptance of the Manuscript	457	(1)
Presenting Research Results at Professional Conferences	458	(3)
Oral Presentation	458	(1)
Poster Presentation	459	(2)
Summary	461	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	461	(1)
Related Internet Sites	462	(1)
Appendices	463	(7)
A Answers to Practice Tests	464	(1)
B Critical Values of t	465	(1)
C The 5 Percent and 1 Percent Values for the F-Distribution	466	(3)
D Table of Random Numbers	469	(1)
References	470	(18)
Index	488