Explorations : An Introduction to Astronomy with Interactive CD-ROM

by Arny, Thomas T.

• ISBN13: 9780075611127
• ISBN10: 0075611120
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1999-09-01
• Publisher: McGraw Hill College Div

Table of Contents

Preface	xxi
Introduction The Cosmic Landscape	1	(1)
The Earth, Our Home	2	(1)
The Moon	3	(1)
The Planets	3	(2)
The Sun	5	(1)
The Solar System	5	(1)
A Sense of Scale	5	(1)
The Astronomical Unit	6	(1)
The Milky Way Galaxy	6	(2)
The Light Year	8	(1)
Galaxy Clusters and the Universe	9	(1)
Gravity	10	(1)
Atoms and Other Forces	10	(1)
The Scientific Method	11	(10)
Overview I The Night Sky	15	(6)
History of Astronomy	21	(56)
Prehistoric Astronomy	22	(13)
The Celestial Sphere	23	(1)
Constellations	24	(1)
Motions of the Sun and Stars	25	(1)
Daily or Diurnal Motion	25	(1)
Annual Motion	26	(1)
The Ecliptic	27	(2)
Solstices and Equinoxes	29	(1)
The Planets and the Zodiac	30	(2)
The Moon	32	(2)
Eclipses	34	(1)
Early Ideas of the Heavens: Classical Astronomy	35	(7)
The Shape of the Earth	35	(1)
The Size of the Earth	36	(1)
Distance and Size of Sun and Moon	37	(2)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Diameter of Astronomical Objects	39	(1)
The Motion of the Planets	40	(1)
Ptolemy	41	(1)
Islamic Contributions	42	(1)
Asian Contributions	42	(1)
Astronomy in the Renaissance	42	(7)
Copernicus	42	(2)
Tycho and Kepler	44	(3)
Galileo	47	(2)
Isaac Newton and the Birth of Astrophysis	49	(1)
The Growth of Astrophysics	49	(8)
New Discoveries	50	(1)
New Technologies	50	(1)
The Natuere of Matter and Heat	50	(1)
The Kelvin Temperature Scale	50	(4)
Project	54	(3)
Backyard Astronomy	57	(20)
Learning the Constellations	57	(1)
Star Lore	58	(2)
Amateur Astronomy	60	(1)
Small Telescopes	61	(2)
Star Charts	63	(1)
Celestial Coordinates	63	(1)
Planetary Configurations	64	(1)
Your Eyes at Night	64	(5)
Overview II Atoms, Forces, Light, and How We Learn About the Universe	69	(8)
Gravity and Motion	77	(16)
Solving the Problem of Astronomical Motion	80	(1)
Inertia	80	(2)
Orbital Motion and Gravity	82	(1)
Newton's Second Law of Motion	83	(2)
Acceleration	83	(1)
Mass	84	(1)
The Law of Gravity	85	(1)
Newton's Third Law	85	(1)
Measuring a Body's Mass Using Orbital Motion	86	(2)
Surface Gravity	88	(2)
Escape Velocity	90	(3)
Light and Atoms	93	(30)
Properties of Light	94	(3)
The Nature of Light---Waves or Particles?	94	(2)
Light and Color	96	(1)
Characterizing Electromagnetic Waves by Their Frequency	96	(1)
White Light	97	(1)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum: Beyond Visible Light	97	(6)
Infrared Radiation	98	(1)
Ultraviolet Light	99	(1)
Radio Waves	99	(1)
Other Wavelength Regions	99	(1)
Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Radiation	100	(1)
Wien's Law: a Wavelength-Temperature Relation	100	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Taking the Temperature of the Sun	101	(1)
Blackbodies and Wien's Law	102	(1)
Atoms	103	(1)
Structure of Atoms	103	(1)
The Chemical Elements	103	(1)
The Origin of Light	104	(2)
Formation of a Spectrum	106	(6)
How a Spectrum Is Formed	106	(2)
Identifying Atoms by their Light	108	(1)
Types of Spectra	109	(1)
Depicting Spectra	110	(1)
Analyzing the Spectrum	110	(1)
Astronomical Spectra	111	(1)
The Doppler Shift	112	(1)
Absorption in the Atmosphere	113	(10)
Overview III The Earth and Moon	117	(6)
The Earth	123	(30)
The Earth as a Planet	124	(3)
Shape and Size of the Earth	124	(2)
Composition of the Earth	126	(1)
Density of the Earth	126	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring The Earth's Mass	127	(1)
The Earth's Interior	127	(5)
Probing the Interior with Earthquake Waves	128	(2)
Heating of the Earth's Core	130	(2)
The Age of the Earth	132	(1)
Motions in the Earth's Interior	133	(4)
Convection in the Earth's Interior	133	(1)
Plate Tectonics	133	(4)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring Motion of Plates Across Time	137	(1)
The Earth's Atmosphere	137	(4)
Composition of the Atmosphere	137	(1)
Origin of the Atmosphere	137	(2)
The Ozone Layer	139	(1)
The Greenhouse Effect	140	(1)
Structure of the Atmosphere	140	(1)
The Earth's Magnetic Field	141	(3)
Origin of Earth's Magnetic Field	142	(1)
Magnetic Effects in the Upper Atmosphere	142	(2)
Motions of the Earth	144	(9)
The Seasons	144	(2)
Air and Ocean Circulation: The Coriolis Effect	146	(2)
Precession	148	(3)
Projects	151	(2)
Telescopes	153	(32)
Telescopes	154	(8)
Collecting Power	154	(1)
Focusing the Light	154	(2)
Extending Our Reach: Refraction	156	(5)
Resolving Power	161	(1)
Interferometers	162	(1)
Observatories	163	(1)
Detecting the Light	163	(1)
Observing at Nonvisible Wavelengths	164	(4)
Extending Our Reach: Observing the Crab Nebula at Many Wavelengths	167
Extending Our Reach: Exploring New Wavelengths: Gamma Rays	166	(2)
Observatories in Space	168	(5)
Atmospheric Blurring	169	(2)
Space Observatories versus Ground-Based Observatories	171	(2)
Going Observing	173	(1)
Computers	173	(1)
Astronomers	174	(3)
Projects
Keeping Time	177	(8)
Length of the Daylight Hours	177	(1)
The Day	177	(3)
Time Zones	180	(1)
Universal Time	180	(1)
Daylight Saving Time	180	(1)
The Month	181	(1)
The Calendar	181	(1)
Leap Year	182	(1)
Religious Calendars	182	(1)
Other Calenders	183	(1)
Names of the Months and Days	183	(1)
The Abbreviations A.M., P.M., B.C., and A.D.	183	(2)
The Moon	185	(32)
Description of the Moon	186	(4)
General Features	186	(1)
Surface Features	186	(2)
Origin of Lunar Surface Features	188	(2)
Structure of the Moon	190	(2)
Crust and Interior	191	(1)
The Absence of a Lunar Atmosphere	192	(1)
Orbit and Motions of the Moon	192	(2)
The Moon's Rotation	193	(1)
Oddities of the Moon's Orbit	194	(1)
Origin and History of the Moon	194	(2)
Eclipses	196	(5)
Rarity of Eclipses	198	(1)
Appearance of Eclipses	199	(2)
Tides	201	(4)
Cause of Tides	201	(2)
Solar Tides	203	(1)
Tidal Braking	204	(1)
Moon Lore	205	(12)
Projects	207	(2)
Overview IV The Solar System	209	(8)
Survey of the Solar System	217	(22)
Components of the Solar System	219	(7)
The Sun	219	(1)
The Planets	219	(1)
Two Types of Planets	220	(1)
Satellites	221	(1)
Asteroids and Comets	222	(1)
Composition Differences between the Inner and Outer Planets	223	(1)
Density as a Measure of a Planet's Composition	223	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Bode's Law: The Search for Order	224	(1)
Age of the Solar System	225	(1)
Origin of the Solar System	226	(13)
Interstellar Clouds	227	(1)
Formation of the Solar Nebula	228	(1)
Condensation in the Solar Nebula	228	(1)
Accretion and Planetesimals	229	(1)
Formation of the Planets	230	(1)
Fomation of Moons	231	(1)
Final Stages of Planet Formation	231	(2)
Formation of Atmospheres	233	(1)
Cleaning up the Solar System	233	(1)
Remodeling: Other Planetary Systems	233	(6)
The Terrestrial Planets	239	(32)
Portraits of the Terrestrial Planets	240	(2)
Mercury	242	(5)
Mercury's Temperature and Atmosphere	243	(1)
Mercury's Interior	244	(1)
Mercury's Rotation	245	(2)
Venus	247	(6)
The Venusian Atmosphere	247	(1)
The Greenhouse Effect	248	(1)
The Surface of Venus	249	(3)
Interior of Venus	252	(1)
Rotation of Venus	253	(1)
Mars	253	(10)
The Martian Atmosphere	257	(3)
The Martian Interior	260	(1)
The Martian Moons	261	(1)
Life on Mars?	262	(1)
Why Are the Terrestrial Planets so Different?	263	(8)
Role of Mass and Radius	263	(1)
Role of Internal Activity	263	(1)
Role of Sunlight	264	(1)
Role of Water Content	264	(1)
Role of Biological Processes	264	(7)
The Outer Planets	271	(26)
Jupiter	272	(8)
Appearance and Physical Properties	272	(1)
Jupiter's Interior	273	(1)
Jupiter's Atmosphere	274	(2)
Jupiter's Ring	276	(1)
Jupiter's Moons	277	(3)
Saturn	280	(5)
Saturn's Appearance and Physical Properties	280	(1)
Saturn's Rings	281	(2)
Origin of Planetary Rings	283	(1)
The of Planetary Rings	283	(1)
Saturn's Moons	284	(1)
Uranus	285	(3)
Uranus's Atmosphere	286	(1)
Uranus's Interior	286	(1)
Uranus's Rings and Moons	287	(1)
Uranus's Odd Tilt	288	(1)
Neptune	288	(4)
Neptune's Structure	289	(1)
Neptune's Atmosphere	289	(2)
Neptune's Rings and Moons	291	(1)
Pluto	292	(5)
Meteors, Asteroids, and Comets	297	(28)
Meteors and Meteorites	298	(2)
Heating of Meteorites	298	(1)
Meteorites	299	(1)
Asteroids	300	(5)
Size and Shpae	300	(2)
Composition	302	(1)
Origin of Asteroids	302	(2)
Unusual Asteroids	304	(1)
Comets	305	(7)
Structure of Comets	305	(2)
Composition of Comets	307	(1)
Origin of Comets	307	(2)
Formation of the Comet's Tail	309	(1)
Light from the Comet's Tail	310	(1)
Short-Period Comets	310	(1)
Fate of Short-Period Comets	310	(1)
Meteor Showers	311	(1)
Giant Impacts	312	(13)
Giant Meteor Craters	312	(2)
Mass Extinction and Asteroid/Comet Impacts	314	(3)
Projects	317	(2)
Overview V Stars	319	(6)
The Sun, Our Star	325	(26)
Size and Structue	326	(5)
Measuring the Sun's Properties	327	(1)
The Solar Interior	328	(1)
Energy Transport	329	(1)
The Solar Atmosphere	330	(1)
How the Sun Works	331	(4)
Internal Balance (Hydrostatic Equilibrium)	331	(1)
Pressure in the Sun	332	(1)
Powering the Sun	333	(1)
Nuclear Fusion	333	(1)
The Structure of Hydrogen and Helium	334	(1)
The Proton-Proton Chain	334	(1)
Probing the Sun's Core	335	(3)
Solar Neutrinos	335	(2)
Solar Seismology	337	(1)
Solar Magnetic Activity	338	(5)
Sunspots	338	(1)
Solar Magnetic Fields	339	(1)
Prominences and Flares	339	(1)
Heating of the Chromosphere and Corona	340	(1)
The Solar Wind	341	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Detecting Magnetic Fields: the Zeeman Effect	342	(1)
The Solar Cycle	343	(8)
Cause of the Solar Cycle	343	(2)
Changes in the Solar Cycle	345	(1)
Links between the Solar Cycle and Terrestrial Climate	345	(4)
Projects	349	(2)
Measuring the Properties of Stars	351	(34)
Measuring a Star's Distance	352	(3)
Measuring Distance by Triangulation and Parallax	352	(2)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Distance to Sirius	354	(1)
Measuring Distace by the Standard Candle Method	355	(1)
Measuring the Properties of Stars from Their Light	355	(7)
Temperature	356	(1)
Luminosity	357	(1)
The Inverse-Square Law and Measuring a Star's Luminosity	357	(1)
Radius	358	(1)
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law	358	(2)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Radius of the Star Sirius	360	(1)
The Magnitude System	361	(1)
Spectra of Stars	362	(6)
Measuring a Star's Composition	363	(1)
How Temperature Affects a Star's Spectrum	363	(1)
Classification of Stellar Spectra	364	(1)
Definition of the Spectral Classes	365	(1)
Measuring a Star's Motion	366	(2)
Binary Stars	368	(3)
Visual and Spectroscopic Binaries	369	(1)
Measuring Stellar Masses with Binary Stars	369	(2)
Eclipsing Binary Stars	371	(1)
Summary of Stellar Properties	371	(1)
The H-R Diagram	372	(5)
Constructing the H-R Diagram	373	(1)
Analyzing the H-R Diagram	374	(1)
Giants and Dwarfs	375	(1)
The Mass-Luminosity Relation	375	(1)
Luminosity Classes	376	(1)
Summary of the H-R Diagram	377	(1)
Variable Stars	377	(2)
Finding a Star's Distance by the Method of Standard Candles	379	(6)
Projects	383	(2)
Stellar Evolution	385	(28)
The Evolution of a Star	386	(4)
The Sun's Life Story	387	(1)
The Life Story of a High-Mass Star	388	(1)
The Importance of Gravity	389	(1)
Star Formation	390	(4)
Interstellar Gas Clouds	390	(1)
Protostars	391	(1)
Bipolar Flows from Young Stars	392	(1)
Stellar Mass Limits	393	(1)
Main-Sequence Stars	394	(2)
Why a Star's Mass Determines Its Core Temperature	394	(1)
Structure of High-Mass and Low-Mass Stars	394	(1)
Main-Sequence Lifetime of a Star	395	(1)
Giant Stars	396	(2)
Leaving the Main Sequence	396	(1)
Nuclear Fuels Heavier than Hydrogen	396	(1)
Degeneracy in Low-Mass Stars	397	(1)
Yellow Giants and Pulsating Stars	398	(2)
Why Do Stars Pulsate?	398	(2)
The Period-Luminosity Relation	400	(1)
Death of Stars Like the Sun	400	(2)
Ejection of a Low-Mass Star's Outer Layers	400	(1)
Planetary Nebulas	401	(1)
Old Age of Massive Stars	402	(4)
Formation of Heavy Elements: Nucleosynthesis	402	(1)
Core Collapse of Massive Stars	403	(1)
Supernova Explosions	404	(1)
Supernova Remnants	404	(2)
History of Stellar Evolution Theories	406	(1)
Testing Stellar Evolution Theory	407	(6)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring The Age of a Star Cluster	408	(5)
Stellar Remnants: White Dwarfs, Neutron Stars, and Black Holes	413	(26)
White Dwarfs	414	(4)
General Properties, Origin, and Fate	414	(1)
Structure of White Dwarfs	415	(1)
Degeneracy and the Chandrasekhar Limit	416	(1)
White Dwarfs in Binary Systems: Novas and Supernovas of Type I	416	(2)
Neutron Stars	418	(6)
General Properties and Origin	418	(1)
Pulsars and the Discovery of Neutron Stars	419	(2)
Emission from Neutron Stars	421	(2)
X-Ray Binary Stars	423	(1)
Black Holes	424	(15)
The Formation of Black Holes	426	(1)
Observing Black Holes	426	(1)
Gravitational Waves from Double Compact Stars	427	(1)
Hawking Radiation	428	(5)
Overview VI The Milky Way and Other Galaxies	433	(6)
The Milky Way Galaxy	439	(34)
Discovering the Milky Way	441	(3)
Shape of the Milky Way	441	(1)
Size of the Milky Way	442	(2)
Overview of the Milky Way	444	(2)
Structure and Contents	444	(2)
Mass of the Milky Way and the Number of Stars	446	(1)
Age of the Milky Way	446	(1)
Stars of the Milky Way	446	(5)
Stellar Censuses and the Mass Function	446	(1)
Two Stellar Populations: Population I and Population II	447	(2)
Star Clusters	449	(2)
Gas and Dust in the Milky Way	451	(6)
Interstellar Dust: Obscuration and Reddening	452	(2)
Interstellar Gas	454	(1)
Visible Emission from Interstellar Gas	454	(2)
Radio Waves from Cold Interstellar Gas	456	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Mapping the Milky Way with Radio Waves	456	(1)
Motion of Stars and Gas in the Milky Way	457	(3)
Measuring the Milky Way	460	(3)
Diameter of the Milky Way	460	(1)
Mass of the Milky Way	461	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Mass of the Milky Way	461	(2)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Sun's Speed Around the Milky Way	463	(1)
The Galactic Center	463	(2)
History of the Milky Way	465	(8)
Formation of our Galaxy	465	(1)
Collapse of the Proto-Milky Way and the Birth of Population I and II Stars	466	(1)
Population III	467	(1)
The Future of the Milky Way	468	(3)
Project	471	(2)
Galaxies	473	(32)
Discovering Galaxies	474	(10)
Early Observations of Galaxies	474	(1)
Types of Galaxies	475	(4)
Differences in the Stellar and Gas Content of Galaxies	479	(1)
The Cause of Galaxy Types	480	(1)
Galaxy Collisions and Mergers	481	(3)
Measuring Properties of Galaxies	484	(4)
Galaxy Distances	484	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Distance of a Galaxy Using Cepheid Variables	485	(1)
The Redshift and the Hubble Law	485	(2)
Measuring the Diameter of a Galaxy	487	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Other Ways to Measure a Galaxy's Distance	487	(1)
Measuring the Mass of a Galaxy	488	(1)
Dark Matter	488	(2)
Active Galaxies	490	(5)
Radio Galaxies	490	(1)
Seyfert Galaxies	491	(1)
Quasars	492	(1)
Cause of Activity in Galaxies	492	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Diameter of Astronomical Objects by Using Their Light Variability	493	(2)
Quasars as Probes of Intergalactic Space	495	(2)
Gravitational Lenses	495	(2)
Extending Our Reach: Dark Matter and Gravitational Lenses	497	(1)
Galaxy Clusters	497	(8)
The Local Group	498	(1)
Rich and Poor Galaxy Clusters	499	(1)
Superclusters	500	(4)
Project	504	(1)
Cosmology	505	(36)
Observations of the Universe	506	(9)
Distribution of Galaxies	506	(1)
Motion of Galaxies	507	(1)
Age of the Universe	508	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Estimating the Age of the Universe	509	(1)
The Cosmic Horizon	510	(1)
The Size of the Universe	510	(1)
Are We at the Center of the Universe?	511	(1)
Olbers' Paradox	511	(1)
The Cosmic Background Radiation	512	(2)
Composition of the Oldest Stars	514	(1)
Conclusions Deduced from the Basic Observations of the Universe	514	(1)
Evolution of the Universe: Open or Closed?	515	(2)
The Density of the Universe	516	(1)
Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Density of the Universe	517	(1)
The Shape of the Universe	517	(2)
The Origin of the Universe	519	(3)
Radiation, Matter, and Antimatter in the Early Universe	520	(1)
History of Matter and Radiation in the Early Universe	520	(1)
The Formation of Galaxies	521	(1)
The Inflationary Universe	522	(7)
Extending Our Reach: New Ideas in Cosmology	523	(1)
Grand Unified Theories	523	(2)
Other Universes?	525	(4)
Life in the Universe	529	(12)
Life on Earth	529	(1)
History of Life on Earth	529	(1)
Unity of Living Beings	530	(2)
Deductions from the Unity of Life and the Time Line	532	(1)
Origin of Life on Earth	532	(1)
Origin of Complex Organisms	533	(1)
Panspermia	533	(1)
Life Elsewhere in the Universe	533	(1)
Are We Alone?	534	(1)
Arguments for Many Worlds	534	(1)
Loners	535	(1)
Searching for Life Elsewhere	535	(1)
Radio Searches	535	(1)
The Gaia Hypothesis	536	(1)
The Anthropic Principle	537	(4)
Answers to Test Yourself	541	(1)
Appendix Powers-of-Ten Notation	542	(1)
Some Useful Formulas	542	(11)
Solving Distance, Velocity, Time (D, v, t)
Problems	542	(11)
Physical and Astronomical Constants	543	(1)
Conversion between American and Metric Units	544	(1)
Physical Properties of the Planets	544	(1)
Orbital Properties of the Planets	544	(1)
Satellites of the Solar System	545	(1)
Meteor Showers	546	(1)
The Constellations	547	(2)
The Brightest Stars	549	(1)
The Nearest Stars	550	(1)
Properties of Main-Sequence Stars	550	(3)
Glossary	553	(18)
Index	571