Exploring Geographic Information Systems

by Chrisman, Nicholas

• ISBN13: 9780471314257
• ISBN10: 0471314250
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2001-06-07
• Publisher: Wiley

Summary

Uses case studies to examine the various applications of each type of geographic information. * Considers geographic information as a technical problem, an empowering application, a pure science endeavor, an academic pursuit and a social necessity. * Provides a wide range of examples and applications to help readers understand technical discussions.

Author Biography

Nick Chrisman, University of Washington

Table of Contents

Preface: Call for Participation in an Exploration	iii
Organization of the Book	iv
Acknowledgments	vii
PART I: BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION	1	(102)
Introduction	3	(1)
Beginning the Exploration	3	(8)
Behind a Black Door	3	(1)
The Weekly Meeting	4	(1)
The Surrounding Causes	5	(1)
Source of the Model	6	(2)
Linking the Pieces	8	(1)
Extracting Lessons	9	(1)
Further Explorations: La Selva Project	10	(1)
Convergence of Many Technologies	11	(4)
Defining a Geographic Information System	12	(3)
Reference Systems for Measurement	15	(22)
How Information Works	15	(1)
Basic Components of Geographic Information	16	(9)
Reference Systems	18	(1)
Temporal Reference Systems	19	(1)
Spatial Reference Systems	20	(4)
Attribute Reference Systems	24	(1)
Levels of Measurement	25	(9)
Nominal	26	(1)
Ordinal	26	(1)
Interval	27	(1)
Ratio	28	(1)
Extensive and Derived Scales	28	(3)
What is Missing from Stevens	31	(1)
Absolute Scales	32	(1)
Cyclical Measures	32	(1)
Counts	32	(1)
Graded Membership in Categories	32	(1)
Applying Levels of Measurement to Attribute Reference Systems	33	(1)
Summary	34	(3)
Measurement Frameworks	37	(34)
A Simple Measurement Framework	38	(3)
Control and Measurement	41	(3)
Attribute as Control	44	(9)
Isolated Object Frameworks	45	(1)
Spatial Object Framework	45	(1)
Isoline Framework	45	(1)
Connected Coverage Frameworks and Topological Relationships	46	(4)
Network Framework	50	(1)
Categorical Coverage Framework	51	(2)
Spatial Control	53	(6)
Point-based Frameworks	54	(1)
Center Point Framework	54	(2)
Systematic Unaligned Sample	56	(1)
Area-based Measurement Frameworks	57	(1)
Extreme Value	57	(1)
Total	58	(1)
Predominant Type	58	(1)
Presence/Absence and Percent Cover	59	(1)
Precedence of Types	59	(1)
Relationship Control	59	(2)
Measurement by Pair	60	(1)
Triangulated Irregular Networks (TIN)	60	(1)
Composite Frameworks	61	(6)
Scattered Point Samples	62	(1)
Associating Attributes---Indirect Measurement	63	(2)
Choropleth Framework	65	(2)
Temporal Frameworks	67	(2)
Summary	69	(2)
Representation	71	(32)
Primitives for Representation	72	(3)
Primitives for Attributes	73	(1)
Primitives for Time	73	(1)
Primitive for Space: Coordinates	73	(2)
Representation Models and Data Structures	75	(8)
Vector Model	76	(1)
Representing Isolated Objects	76	(2)
Representing Topological Relationships	78	(1)
Raster Model	79	(4)
Database Architecture	83	(2)
Conversion of Existing Documents (Digitizing)	85	(11)
Geocoding	85	(1)
Vector Tracing	86	(1)
Raster Scanners	87	(2)
Transforming Digitizer Measurements into Coordinates	89	(1)
Registration on Device	89	(3)
Transformations from Document to Projection	92	(1)
Reference to Geodetic Surveys	93	(1)
After Digitizing	94	(2)
Data Quality: Closing the Loop	96	(6)
Scale of Sources	98	(1)
Verification and Quality Control	98	(4)
Summary	102	(1)
PART 2: TRANSFORMATIONS AND OPERATIONS	103	(140)
Attribute-based Operations	105	(14)
Manipulating Attributes	105	(6)
Reducing the Information Content	106	(1)
Group	106	(1)
Isolate	107	(1)
Classify	107	(1)
Scale	108	(1)
Increasing the Information Content	109	(1)
Rank	109	(1)
Evaluate	110	(1)
Rescale	110	(1)
Combining Pairs of Input Values	111	(3)
Cross-tabulate	111	(1)
Sum and Difference	112	(1)
Rate and Density	112	(1)
Proportion	112	(1)
Performing Combinations	112	(2)
Interaction of Attribute and Spatial Components	114	(4)
Spatial Consequences of Aggregation and Isolation	114	(2)
Cartographic Generalization	116	(2)
Summary	118	(1)
Overlay: Integration of Disparate Sources	119	(34)
Development of Map Overlay	119	(3)
The Overlay Operation	122	(9)
Registration: A Universal Requirement	122	(1)
Raster Implementations of Overlay	123	(2)
Vector Implementations of Overlay	125	(1)
Geometric Intersection Processing	126	(2)
Attribute Handling Using Results of Overlay	128	(3)
Comparisons of Performance and Capabilities	131	(1)
Combining Attributes after Overlay	131	(21)
Enumeration Rules	134	(1)
Detecting Differences	134	(1)
Interpreting Differences	135	(2)
Dominance Rules	137	(1)
Exclusionary Screening	137	(4)
Exclusionary Ranking	141	(1)
Highest Bid/Highest Bidder	141	(1)
Contributory Rules	142	(1)
Voting Tabulation	142	(1)
Weighted Voting	143	(1)
Linear Combination	143	(3)
Weighting and Rating	146	(2)
Nonlinear Combinations	148	(1)
Interaction Rules	149	(1)
Contingent Weighting	149	(2)
Evaluating Interactions	151	(1)
Rules of Combination	151	(1)
Summary of Rules	152	(1)
Summary	152	(1)
Distance Relationships	153	(16)
Examples of Distance Specifications	153	(5)
Exclusionary Zones around Features: Buffers and Setbacks	154	(3)
Beyond Buffers and Setbacks	157	(1)
Distance Measurement	158	(6)
Distance Relationships	158	(1)
Constructing Buffers with Vector Data	159	(1)
Measuring Distance in a Raster	159	(4)
Comparison	163	(1)
Extended Voronoi Networks	164	(2)
Data Quality Aspects of Distance Relationships	166	(1)
Summary	167	(2)
Surfaces and Near Neighbors	169	(26)
Surfaces	169	(10)
Topology of Surfaces	171	(3)
Computing Relationships on a Surface	174	(2)
Slope from Triangles	176	(1)
Slope from Matrices	176	(3)
Neighborhood Operations: The Spatial Component	179	(3)
Neighborhood Construction	179	(1)
Raster Neighbors	180	(1)
Vector Neighbors	180	(1)
Edge Effects	181	(1)
Refinements of Neighborhoods	182	(1)
Combining Neighborhood Attributes	182	(11)
Nominal Attributes	182	(1)
Dominance Rules	183	(4)
Contributory Rules	187	(1)
Interaction Rules	187	(1)
Operations Based on Ranking Attributes	188	(2)
Continuous Attributes	190	(1)
Aspatial Treatment of Continuous Attributes in a Neighborhood	190	(1)
Continuous Attributes with Horizontal Measures	191	(2)
Data Quality Applications of Neighborhood Operations	193	(1)
Summary	194	(1)
Comprehensive Operations	195	(22)
Iterative Operations	196	(15)
Viewshed	196	(4)
Cost Accumulation	200	(5)
An Example of Cost Surface Construction: A Water Pipeline	205	(3)
Drainage Operations	208	(1)
Network Operations	209	(2)
Location-Allocation: A Family of Problems with a Common Approach	211	(3)
Statistical Modeling of Spatial Data	214	(3)
Transformations	217	(26)
Prior Approaches to Transformations	217	(1)
Transformations for Surfaces	218	(9)
Interpolation	219	(1)
Interpolation from Scattered Points	220	(2)
Interpolation from Isolines	222	(1)
Interpolation from a DEM	223	(1)
To and From Triangles	224	(3)
A Scheme for Transformations	227	(3)
Transformation by Extraction (Case 0)	228	(1)
Transformations Based on Attribute Assumptions (Case 1A)	228	(1)
Transformations Based on Geometric Processing Only (Case 1N)	228	(1)
Complete Transformations (Case 2)	229	(1)
Re-presenting Surface Transformations	229	(1)
Examples of Transformations	230	(12)
Case 1A: Classification of Remotely Sensed Imagery	230	(1)
Forest Mapping for the United States	231	(2)
Case 1N: Geometric Measures Converted to Attributes	233	(1)
Wetland Regulation and Wasteland Assessment in Westport, Wisconsin	234	(4)
Case 2: Areal Interpolation	238	(2)
Dasymetric Mapping of Population Density, Cape Cod	240	(2)
Summary	242	(1)
PART 3: THE BROADER ARENA	243	(42)
Evaluation and Implementation	245	(20)
Technical Evaluation	245	(6)
Data Quality Assessment	246	(1)
Measurement Frameworks and Accuracy	246	(2)
Strategy for Testing	248	(1)
Allocation of Resources	248	(1)
Computer Resources	248	(1)
Financial Resources	249	(2)
Human Resources	251	(1)
Implementing a GIS	251	(12)
Needs Assessment	253	(2)
Requirements Analysis	255	(1)
Database Design	255	(1)
Approaches to Geographic Measurement	256	(4)
Bidding Process	260	(1)
Construction	261	(2)
Serving Larger Goals	263	(2)
Social and Institutional Interactions	265	(20)
Historical Trends in Technological Change	266	(1)
Geography of Geographic Information	267	(4)
Geographic Information in the Bureaucracy	271	(5)
Institutional Continuity	272	(2)
Institutional Definitions of Time and History	274	(1)
Cooperation and Coordination	275	(1)
Information in Its Social Context	276	(4)
Equity	277	(1)
Access to Information	278	(2)
Balancing Competing Concerns	280	(1)
Information and Culture	280	(3)
Culture: Continuity and Change	281	(1)
The Practice of GIS	282	(1)
Summary	283	(2)
Bibliography	285	(8)
Sources and Credits	293	(4)
Index	297