Fire Retardancy of Polymers

by Le Bras, Michel; Wilkie, Charles A.; Bourbigot, Serge

• ISBN13: 9780854045822
• ISBN10: 0854045821
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-05-30
• Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry

Summary

The use of polymers is restricted by their flammability - they may indeed initiate or propagate fire. Fire Retardancy of Polymers focuses on mineral additives from either micro- or nano-composites for application in fire retardants. With the use of fire retardant additives containing halogen or phosphorus compounds in decline, the need for other systems is evident. The major materials that are used are alumina trihydrate or magnesium hydroxide which account for more than 50% by weight of the world-wide sales of fire retardants. Recent works have shown that such halogen-free compounds may give enhanced fire retardancy to polymeric materials when used in low levels, alone, or in synergistic mixtures. The corresponding fire performance depends on the dispersion of the mineral filler, with micrometer-scale dispersion leading to the best performances. Specialists discuss these new applications of mineral fillers with particular emphasis on action mechanisms, new materials including textiles, toxicology and hazards. With extensive references, this book provides a comprehensive and up-to-date view of these applications. This book will appeal to professionals, materials scientists and engineers looking for novel ways to eliminate fire hazards and improve flame retardancy of materials, with a special interest in sustainable development.

Table of Contents

Abbreviations	xxiv
General Considerations on the Use of Fillers and Nanocomposites
Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Use of Fillers and Nanocomposites in Fire Retardancy (Invited Review)	1	(18)
C.A. Wilkie
1.1 Introduction	3	(1)
1.2 Characterization of Fire Retardancy of Polymers	3	(1)
1.3 Fire Retardant Fillers for Polymers	4	(1)
1.4 Nanocomposites	5	(8)
1.4.1 Preparation and Modeling of Nanocomposites	7	(1)
1.4.2 Organic Clay Modification	8	(1)
1.4.3 Determination of the Morphology of Nanocomposites	9	(1)
1.4.4 Utility of Nanocomposites	10	(1)
1.4.5 Modeling of Fire Retardancy Due to Nanocomposite Formation	10	(1)
1.4.6 Mechanisms by which Nanocomposites Enhance the Fire Retardancy of Polymers	10	(2)
1.4.7 Fire Retardancy Due to Nanocomposite Formation	12	(1)
1.5 Conclusion - the Future of Fillers and Nanocomposites in Fire Retardancy	13	(1)
1.6 References	13	(6)
Micro-sized Fire Retardant Fillers
Chapter 2 Fire Retardant Fillers for Polymers (Invited Review)	19	(23)
P.R. Hornsby and R.N. Rothon
2.1 Fire Retardant Fillers Available	19	(3)
2.1.1 Aluminium Hydroxides	20	(1)
2.1.2 Magnesium Hydroxide, Mg(OH)2	20	(1)
2.1.3 Basic Magnesium Carbonates	21	(1)
2.1.4 Boehmite, AlO(OH)	21	(1)
2.1.5 Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate, (Gypsum) CaSO4.2H2O	21	(1)
2.2 Mechanistic Studies	22	(5)
2.2.1 Flame Retardancy	22	(1)
2.2.1.1 Thermal Effects from Filler	23	(1)
2.2.1.2 Dilution of Combustible Polymer	24	(1)
2.2.1.3 Filler/Polymer Interactions	25	(1)
2.2.1.4 Vapour Phase Action	25	(1)
2.2.1.5 Effects of Filler Particle Size and Morphology	26	(1)
2.2.2 Smoke Suppression	26	(1)
2.2.3 Incandescence	27	(1)
2.3 Synergists for Hydrated Fillers	27	(4)
2.4 Processing and Considerations on Mechanical Property	31	(5)
2.4.1 Rheological Issues	31	(3)
2.4.2 Enhancement of Mechanical Properties	34	(1)
2.4.3 Alternative Processing Strategies for Hydrated Fillers	35	(1)
2.5 Conclusions	36	(1)
2.6 References	37	(5)
Chapter 3 Lamellar Double Hydroxides/Polymer Composites: A New Class of Fire Retardant Materials	42	(12)
J. Lefebvre, M. Le Bras and S. Bourbigot
3.1 Introduction	42	(1)
3.2 Description of LDHs materials	43	(1)
3.3 Synthesis of LDHs/Polymer nanocomposites	44	(1)
3.3.1 Intercalation of monomer molecules followed by "in situ" polymerization	44	(1)
3.3.2 Direct Intercalation of Extended Polymer Chains Between Ldhs Layers	44	(1)
3.3.3 Transformation of Host Material into a Colloid System and Precipitation in the Presence of the Polymer	44	(1)
3.4 Mechanical properties of LDHs/Polymer composites	45	(2)
3.5 Thermal Stability of LDHs/Polymer Nanocomposites	47	(3)
3.6 Flame Resistance of LDHs/Polymer Composites	50	(1)
3.7 Conclusions	51	(1)
3.8 References	52	(2)
Chapter 4 Effect of a Small Amount of Flame Retardant on the Combustion of PC, PBT and PET	54	(14)
T. Ohkawa, T. Ishikawa and K. Takeda
4.1 Introduction	54	(1)
4.2 Experimental	55	(1)
4.3 Results	56	(4)
4.3.1 Combustion Data of Blends with PPFBS, PTFMS and PPh	56	(2)
4.3.2 Combustion of Blends with Metal Oxides, Red Phosphorous	58	(1)
4.3.3 TGA and Elemental Analysis of PC	59	(1)
4.4 Discussion	60	(6)
4.4.1 Degradation at Different Temperatures	61	(1)
4.4.2 Degradation Paths of Neat-PC and Blends	61	(1)
4.4.3 Estimated Char Structures	62	(1)
4.4.4 Degradation Routes and Flame Retardancy	63	(3)
4.5 Acknowledgement	66	(1)
4.6 References	66	(2)
Chapter 5 Intumescent Silicates: Synthesis, Characterization and Fire Protective Effect	68	(13)
C. Pélégris, M. Rivenet and M. Traisnel
5.1 Introduction	68	(1)
5.2 Silicate Solution Chemistry	69	(1)
5.3 Experimental	70	(2)
5.3.1 Sample Preparation	70	(1)
5.3.1.1 Aqueous Silicates	70	(1)
5.3.1.2 Dried Silicates	71	(1)
5.3.2 Blending of Dried Silicates Powders and Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA-19%) Polymer	71	(1)
5.3.3 Characterisation	71	(1)
5.3.3.1 Intumescence Test	71	(1)
5.3.3.2 TGA Studies	71	(1)
5.3.3.3 Lixiviation Test	72	(1)
5.3.3.4 Infrared Spectroscopy	72	(1)
5.3.3.5 Fire Protective Effect	72	(1)
5.4 Results and Discussion	72	(5)
5.5 Conclusion	77	(1)
5.6 References	78	(3)
Use of Nanocomposite Materials
Chapter 6 Flammability of Nanocomposites: Effects of the Shape of Nanoparticles (Invited Review)	81	(19)
T. Kashiwagi
6.1 Introduction	81	(1)
6.2 Flammability Measurement	82	(1)
6.3 Polymer-Nanosilica Nanocomposites	82	(4)
6.4 Polymer-Clay Nanocomposites	86	(5)
6.5 Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposites	91	(4)
6.6 Discussion	95	(2)
6.7 Conclusion	97	(1)
6.6 Acknowledgement	98	(1)
6.7 References	99	(1)
Chapter 7 Thermal Degradation and Combustibility of Polypropylene Filled with Magnesium Hydroxide Micro-filler and Polypropylene Nano-filled Aluminosilicate Composite	100	(14)
S.M. Lomakin, G.E. Zaikov and E.V. Koverzanova
7.1 Introduction	100	(2)
7.2 Experimental	102	(1)
7.2.1 Materials	102	(1)
7.2.2 Thermal Analysis	102	(1)
7.2.3 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Analysis (GC-MS)	102	(1)
7.2.4 Clay and Composite Characterization	103	(1)
7.3 Results and Discussion	103	(10)
7.4 References	113	(1)
Chapter 8 Effect of the Processing Conditions on the Fire Retardant and Thermo-mechanical Properties of PP-Clay Nanocomposites	114	(12)
A. Bendaoudi, S. Duquesne, C. Jama, M. Le Bras, R. Delobel, P. Recourt, J.-M. Gloaguen, J.-M. Lefebvre and A. Addad
8.1 Introduction	114	(1)
8.2 Experimental	115	(2)
8.2.1 Materials	115	(1)
8.2.2 Cone Calorimetry	116	(1)
8.2.3 Thermogravimetry	116	(1)
8.2.4 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis	117	(1)
8.2.5 Characterization of Nanocomposites	117	(1)
8.2.6 Experimental Design	117	(1)
8.3 Results and Discussion	117	(6)
8.3.1 Fire Retardant Performance of PP Nanocomposites	117	(2)
8.3.2 Thermal Stability of PP/PP-g-MA/20A Nanocomposites	119	(2)
8.3.3 Dynamic Thermo-Mechanical Properties of PP Nanocomposites	121	(1)
8.3.4 Characterization of PP Nanocomposites	121	(2)
8.4 Conclusion	123	(1)
8.5 References	124	(2)
Chapter 9 Fire Retardancy of Polystyrene - Hectorite Nanocomposite	126	(13)
D. Wang, B.N. Jang, S. Su, J. Zhang, X. Zheng, G. Chigwada, D.D. Jiang, and C.A. Wilkie
9.1 Introduction	126	(1)
9.2 Experimental	127	(2)
9.2.1 Materials	127	(1)
9.2.2 Organic Modification of Hectorite	128	(1)
9.2.3 Preparation of Nanocomposites	128	(1)
9.2.4 Instrumentation	128	(1)
9.3 Results and Discussions	129	(7)
9.3.1 X-ray Diffraction	129	(1)
9.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy	129	(2)
9.3.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis	131	(1)
9.3.4 Cone Calorimetry	131	(5)
9.4 Conclusions	136	(1)
9.5 Acknowledgement	137	(1)
9.6 References	137	(2)
Chapter 10 Pyrolysis and Flammability of Polyurethane - Organophilic Clay Nanocomposite	139	(8)
G.E. Zaikov, S.M. Lomakin and RA. Sheptalin
10.1 Introduction	139	(1)
10.2 Experimental	140	(2)
10.2.1 Materials	140	(1)
10.2.2 Preparation of Organophilic Montmorillonite (OM)	140	(1)
10.2.3 Synthesis of Propylene Oxide-OM (PO-OM)	140	(1)
10.2.4 Synthesis of Polyurethane-Organophilic Montmorillonite Nanocomposite (PU-OM)	140	(1)
10.2.5 XRD Characterization	141	(1)
10.2.6 Pyrolysis	141	(1)
10.2.7 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Analysis	141	(1)
10.2.8 Combustion Tests	142	(1)
10.3 Results and Discussion	142	(4)
10.4 References	146	(1)
Chapter 11 Thermal Degradation Behaviour Of Flame-Retardant Unsaturated Polyester Resins Incorporating Functionalised Nanoclays	147	(14)
B.K Kandola, S. Nazare and A.R. Horrocks
11.1 Introduction	147	(1)
11.2 Experimental	148	(1)
11.2.1 Materials	148	(1)
11.2.2 Preparation of Polyester-Clay Nanocomposites	149	(1)
11.2.3 Equipment	149	(1)
11.3 Results and Discussion	149	(10)
11.3.1 Thermal Degradation of Clays	150	(3)
11.3.2 Thermal Degradation of Resin	153	(1)
11.3.3 Effect of Different Clays on Thermal Degradation of Resin	153	(2)
11.3.4 Effect of Flame Retardants on Thermal Degradation of Polyester Resin	155	(1)
11.3.5 Effect of Clays on Thermal Degradation of Flame Retarded Resin	156	(3)
11.4 Conclusions	159	(1)
11.5 Acknowledgements	159	(1)
11.6 References	159	(2)
Chapter 12 Comparative Study of Nano-effect on Fire Retardancy of Polymer-Graphite Oxide Nanocomposites	161	(16)
J. Wang and Z. Han
12.1 Introduction	161	(1)
12.2 Experimental	162	(1)
12.2.1 Sample Preparation	162	(1)
12.2.2 Characterization Techniques	162	(1)
12.3 Results and Discussion	162	(12)
12.3.1 Morphological Structure	162	(1)
12.3.2 Fire Retardancy	163	(4)
12.3.3 Mechanistic Study (TGA/XPS)	167	(7)
12.4 Conclusions	174	(1)
12.5 References	175	(2)
Chapter 13 Styrene-Acrylonitrile Copolymer Montmorillonite Nanocomposite: Processing, Characterization and Flammability	177	(12)
J.W. Gilman, S. Bellayer, S. Bourbigot, H. Stretz and D.R. Paul
13.1 Introduction	177	(1)
13.2 Experimentala	178	(2)
13.2.1 Preparation of Nanocomposites	178	(1)
13.2.2 NMR Spectroscopy	179	(1)
13.2.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy	179	(1)
13.2.4 Tensile Properties	180	(1)
13.2.5 Cone Calorimetry by Mass Loss Calorimeter	180	(1)
13.3 Results and Discussion	180	(5)
13.3.1 Characterization by XRD and TEM	180	(1)
13.3.2 T1H of Nanocomposite	181	(2)
13.3.3 Tensile Properties	183	(1)
13.3.4 Flammability Properties	184	(1)
13.4 Conclusion	185	(1)
13.5 References	185	(4)
Micro-sized Fire Retarding Mineral Fillers
Chapter 14 Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxanes: Application to Flame Retardant Textiles (Invited Paper)	189	(13)
S. Bourbigot , M. Le Bras, X. Flambard, M. Rochery, E. Devaux and J.D. Lichtenhan
14.1 Introduction	189	(3)
14.2 Experimental	192	(3)
14.2.1 Raw Materials	192	(1)
14.2.2 Processing of Nanocomposite Textiles	193	(1)
14.2.2.1 PP-POSS Multifilament Yarns	193	(1)
14.2.2.2 Knitted Fabric of PP-POSS Multifilament Yarns	193	(1)
14.2.2.3 Synthesis of Polyurethane Nanocomposite	193	(1)
14.2.2.4 Polyester Fabric Coated with Polyurethane Nanocomposite	193	(1)
14.2.3 Solid State NMR	194	(1)
14.2.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis	194	(1)
14.2.5 Cone Calorimetry by Oxygen Consumption	194	(1)
14.3 Results and Discussion	195	(4)
14.3.1 PP-POSS Multifilament Yarns	195	(2)
14.3.2 TPU-POSS Coating	197	(2)
14.4 Conclusion	199	(1)
14.5 Acknowledgements	200	(1)
14.6 References	200	(2)
Chapter 15 Octaisobutyl POSS Thermal Degradation	202	(21)
A. Fina, D. Tabuani, A. Frache, E. Boccaleri and G. Camino
15.1 Introduction	202	(2)
15.2 Experimental	204	(1)
15.3 Results and Discussion	205	(13)
15.3.1 Thermal Degradation in Inert Conditions	205	(5)
15.3.2 Thermal Degradation in Oxidative Conditions	210	(8)
15.4 Conclusions	218	(1)
15.5 Acknowledgements	219	(1)
15.6 References	219	(4)
Mineral Fillers in Synergistic Systems
Chapter 16 Interactions between Nanoclays and Flame Retardant Additives in Polyamide 6, and Polyamide 6.6 Films (Invited Paper)	223	(16)
A.R. Horrocks, B.K. Kandola and S.A. Padbury
16.1 Introduction	223	(1)
16.2 Experimental	224	(1)
16.2.1 Materials	224	(1)
16.2.2 Film Preparation	225	(1)
16.2.3 Flammability Measurement	225	(1)
16.2.4 Thermal Analysis	225	(1)
16.3 Results and Discussion	225	(10)
16.3.1 Thermal Analytical Behaviour: Nanocomposite Character	225	(4)
16.3.2 Limiting Oxygen Index Measurements	229	(1)
16.3.2.1 Polyamide 6.6	229	(1)
16.3.2.2 Polyamide 6	233	(2)
16.4 A Simple Model for Nanoclay-Fr Interation	235	(2)
16.5 References	237	(2)
Chapter 17 Use of Clay-Nanocomposite Matrixes in Fire Retardant Polyolefin-based Intumescent Systems	239	(9)
S. Duquesne, S. Bourbigot, M. Le Bras, C. Jama and R. Delobel
17.1 Introduction	239	(1)
17.2 Experimental	240	(2)
17.2.1 Materials	240	(1)
17.2.1.1 EVA, Nanocomposite	240	(1)
17.2.1.2 PP Nanocomposite	240	(1)
17.2.1.3 Intumescent Systems	241	(1)
17.2.2 Fire Testing	241	(1)
17.2.2.1 Cone Calorimeter	241	(1)
17.2.2.2 Limiting Oxygen Index	241	(1)
17.2.2.3 UL-94	242	(1)
17.3 Results and Discussion	242	(4)
17.3.1 Fire Retardant Performance of EVA Based Systems	242	(1)
17.3.2 Fire Retardant Performance of PP Based Systems	243	(3)
17.4 Conclusion	246	(1)
17.5 Acknowledgement	246	(1)
17.6 References	246	(2)
Chapter 18 Effect of Hydroxides on Fire Retardance Mechanism of Intumescent EVA Composition	248	(16)
G. Camino, A. Riva, D. Vizzini, A. Castrovinci, P. Amigouët and P. Bras Pereira
18.1 Introduction	248	(1)
18.2 Experimental	249	(2)
18.2.1 Materials	249	(1)
18.2.2 Combined Thermogravimetry-infrared-evolved Gas Analysis (TGA-FTIR-EGA)	249	(1)
18.2.3 Expansion Measurements	250	(1)
18.2.4 Oxygen Consumption Calorimetry (Cone Calorimeter)	250	(1)
18.3 Results and Discussion	251	(11)
18.3.1 Flammability Behaviour	251	(1)
18.3.2 Thermal Degradation of APP in the Presence of MH or ATH	252	(1)
18.3.2.1 ATH and MH	253	(1)
18.3.2.2 APP	253	(1)
18.3.2.3 APP-MH mixtures	254	(1)
18.3.2.4 APP-ATH mixtures	257	(2)
18.3.3 Expansion Behaviour of Intumescent Mixtures Containing MH	259	(3)
18.4 Conclusions	262	(1)
18.5 References	263	(1)
Chapter 19 Barrier Effects for the Fire Retardancy of Polymers	264	(12)
B. Schartel, M. Bartholmai and U. Braun
19.1 Introduction	264	(1)
19.2 Experimental	265	(1)
19.3 Results and discussion	266	(7)
19.3.1 Role of Barrier Effects and Residue in Char Forming Systems	266	(3)
19.3.2 The Effect of Inorganic Residue in Contrast to Char	269	(2)
19.3.3 The Role of Insulation Properties in Contrast to Mass Transfer Barrier	271	(2)
19.4 Conclusion	273	(1)
19.5 Acknowledgements	274	(1)
19.6 References	274	(2)
Chapter 20 Plasma Assisted Process for Fire Properties Improvement of Polyamide and Clay Nanocomposite Reinforced Polyamide: A Scale-up Study	276	(15)
A. Quédé, B. Mutel, C. Jama, P. Goudmand, M. Le Bras, O. Dessaux and R Delobel
20.1 Introduction	276	(1)
20.2 Experimental	277	(2)
20.2.1 Reactor	277	(1)
20.2.2 Characterization Techniques	278	(1)
20.2.3 Samples	279	(1)
20.3 Results	279	(8)
20.3.1 Influence of dis on Both the Deposition Rate and The Radial Thickness Homogeneity of Films Deposited in the L-reactor	279	(1)
20.3.2 Comparison of Deposition Rate, Radial Homogeneity and Specific Gravity of the Films Obtained with the Two Reactors	280	(1)
20.3.3 FTIR Study: Comparison of the Chemical Structure of Films Obtained with the Two Reactors	280	(1)
20.3.4 SEM Study: Comparison of the Morphology of Films Obtained with the Two Reactors	280	(2)
20.3.5 Flame Retardant Properties	282	(1)
20.3.5.1 LOI Tests	282	(1)
20.3.5.2 Cone Calorimeter Measurements	285	(2)
20.4 Conclusions	287	(2)
20.5 Acknowledgments	289	(1)
20.6 References	289	(2)
Chapter 21 Fire Retardant Polypropylene/flax Blends: Use of Hydroxides	291	(11)
M. Fois, M. Grisel, M. Le Bras, S. Duquesne and F. Poutch
21.1 Introduction	291	(2)
21.2 Experimental	293	(1)
21.2.1 Materials	293	(1)
21.2.2 Fire Testings	293	(1)
21.2.3 Thermogravimetric Analyses	293	(1)
21.2.4 Mechanical Characterisations	294	(1)
21.3 Results and Discussion	294	(5)
21.3.1 Fire Performances	294	(4)
21.3.2 Mechanical Properties	298	(1)
21.4 Conclusion	299	(1)
21.5 References	299	(3)
Chapter 22 Intumescence in Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Copolymer filled with Magnesium Hydroxide and Organoclays	302	(11)
L. Ferry, P. Gaudon, E. Leroy and J.-M. Lopez Cuesta
22.1 Introduction	302	(1)
22.2 Experimental	303	(2)
22.2.1 Materials	303	(1)
22.2.2 Processing	303	(1)
22.2.3 Experimental Techniques	304	(1)
22.3 Results and Discussion	305	(7)
22.3.1 Structural Characterization	305	(1)
22.3.2 Thermal Analysis	306	(1)
22.3.3 Fire Properties	307	(1)
22.3.3.1 Epiradiateur Test	307	(1)
22.3.3.2 LOI Test	308	(1)
22.3.3.3 Cone Calorimeter	309	(3)
22.4 Conclusions	312	(1)
22.5 References	312	(1)
Chapter 23 Spent Oil Refinery Catalyst: A Synergistic Agent in Intumescent Formulations for Polyethylenic Materials	313	(14)
L.R. de Moura Estevão, R.S.V. Nascimento, M. Le Bras and R. Delobel
23.1 Introduction	313	(1)
23.2 Protection Via Intumescence	314	(1)
23.2.1 Intumescent Formulations	315	(1)
23.3 Synergistic Agents	315	(1)
23.4 Oil Cracking Catalyst	315	(2)
23.4.1 The FCC Process and Catalyst - Basic Concepts	316	(1)
23.4.2 Chemical Composition and Physical Properties of the Spent FCC Catalyst	316	(1)
23.5 Effect of the Catalyst on Fire Performance of Intumescent Formulations: Are the Additives in Synergy?	317	(7)
23.5.1 Effect of Catalyst Loading	318	(1)
23.5.2 Effect of the Catalyst's Particle Size	319	(1)
23.5.3 Effect of the Catalyst's Components on Flame Retardancy	319	(2)
23.5.4 Spent Catalyst and the Intumescent Layer	321	(3)
23.6 Conclusion	324	(1)
23.7 Acknowledgements	324	(1)
23.8 References	324	(3)
Chapter 24 Zinc Borates as Synergists for Flame Retarded Polymers (Invited Paper)	327	(9)
S. Bourbigot, M. Le Bras and S. Duquesne
24.1 Introduction	327	(1)
24.2 Zinc Borates in Eva-Metal Hydroxides Systems	328	(4)
24.3 Zinc Borates in PP-Based Intumescent Systems	332	(2)
24.4 Conclusions	334	(1)
24.5 References	334	(2)
Chapter 25 Fire Retardancy of Engineering Polymer Composites	336	(11)
P. Anna, S. Matkó, G. Marosi, G. Nagy, X. Alméras and M. Le Bras
25.1 Introduction	336	(1)
25.2 Experimental	337	(1)
25.2.1 Components of Polypropylene Compounds	337	(1)
25.2.2 Components of 3P Composites	337	(1)
25.2.3 Compounding of Thermoplastic Composites	337	(1)
25.3 Results and Discussion	338	(7)
25.3.1 Intumescent PP Compounds Containing PA 6 Charring Component and Talc as Melt Rheology Controller	338	(3)
25.3.2 Intumescent PP Compounds Containing PA 6 Charring Component and Nano-Clay as Melt Rheology Controller	341	(1)
25.3.3 Flame Retarded and Basalt Fibre Reinforced Thermosetting Polymer (3P) Composites	342	(3)
25.4 Conclusion	345	(1)
25.5 Acknowledgement	345	(1)
25.6 References	345	(2)
Chapter 26 Flame Retardant Mechanisms Facilitating Safety in Transportation	347	(16)
G. Marosi, S. Keszei, A. Márton, A. Szép, M. Le Bras, R. Delobel and P. Hornsby
26.1 Introduction	347	(3)
26.2 Experimental	350	(1)
26.2.1 Materials	350	(1)
26.2.2 Methods	351	(1)
26.3 Results and Discussion	351	(7)
26.3.1 Development of Nanocomposites for Forming Internal Panels	351	(2)
26.3.2 New Mechanisms for Delivering FR Components to the Surface	353	(3)
26.3.3 Development of Flame Retarded Noise Insulating Sheets	356	(2)
26.4 Conclusions	358	(1)
26.5 Acknowledgement	359	(1)
26.6 References	359	(4)
Effect of the Addition of Mineral Fillers and Additives on the Toxicity of Fire Effluents from Polymers
Chapter 27 Comparison of the Degradation Products of Polyurethane and Polyurethane-Organophilic Clay Nanocomposite - A Toxicological Approach (Invited Paper)	363	(9)
G.E. Zaikov, S.M. Lomakin and R.A. Sheptalin
27.1 Ecological Issue of Isocyanates and Pyrolysis of Polyurethane Nanocomposite	363	(1)
27.2 Occupational Exposure	364	(1)
27.3 Health Effects	365	(5)
27.3.1 GC-MS Pyrolysis	365	(5)
27.4 Conclusion	370	(1)
27.5 References	370	(2)
Chapter 28 Mechanisms of Smoke and CO Suppression from EVA Composites	372	(14)
T.R. Hull, C.L. Wills, T. Artingstall, D. Price and G.J. Milnes
28.1 Introduction	372	(4)
28.2 Experimental	376	(1)
28.2.1 Materials	376	(1)
28.2.2 Burning Behaviour	376	(1)
28.3 Results	377	(5)
28.3.1 Correlation of Physical Fire Models	377	(5)
28.3.2 Smoke	382	(1)
28.4 Conclusions	382	(2)
28.5 Acknowledgements	384	(1)
28.6 References	384	(2)
Chapter 29 Products of Incomplete Combustion from Fire Studies in the Purser Furnace	386	(13)
C.L. Wills, J. Arotsky, T.R. Hull, D. Price, D.A. Purser and J. Purser
29.1 Introduction	386	(1)
29.2 Experimental	387	(2)
29.2.1 Materials	387	(1)
29.2.2 Apparatus	387	(2)
29.2.3 Secondary Oxidiser	389	(1)
29.3 Results	389	(5)
29.3.1 Mass Loss	389	(1)
29.3.2 Effluent Oxygen	390	(1)
29.3.3 Carbon Dioxide	390	(1)
29.3.4 CO2/CO Ratio	391	(1)
29.3.5 Secondary Oxidiser	392	(1)
29.3.6 CO Yield	393	(1)
29.3.7 Smoke	394	(1)
29.4 Discussion	394	(3)
29.5 Conclusions	397	(1)
29.6 Acknowledgements	397	(1)
29.7 References	397	(2)
Chapter 30 Improved and Cost-efficient Brominated Fire Retardant Systems for Plastics and Textiles by Reducing or Eliminating Antimony Trioxide	399	(13)
R. Borms, R. Wilmer, M. Peled, N. Kornberg, R. Mazor, Y. Bar Yaakov, J. Scheinert and P. Georlette
30.1 Introduction	399	(1)
30.2 Polypropylene (PP)	399	(2)
30.3 High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS)	401	(2)
30.4 Styrenic Copolymers	403	(1)
30.5 Polyamide	404	(2)
30.6 Polycarbonate (PC) and its Alloys with ABS	406	(2)
30.7 Textile Back-Coating	408	(1)
30.8 Conclusion	409	(1)
30.9 Acknowledgement	409	(1)
30.10 References	409	(3)
Subject Index	412