The Forests Handbook, 2 Volume Set

by Evans, Julian

• ISBN13: 9780632048182
• ISBN10: 0632048182
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-02-14
• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell

Summary

The future of the world's forests is at the forefront of environmental debate. Rising concerns over the effects of deforestation and climate change are highlighting the need to conserve and manage existing forests and woodland through sustainable forestry practices. The Forests Handbook, written by an international team of both scientists and practitioners, presents an integrated approach to forests and forestry, applying our present understanding of forest science to management practices, as a basis for achieving sustainability.Volume One presents an overview of the world's forests; their locations and what they are like, the science of how they operate as complex ecosystems and how they interact with their environment. Volume Two applies this science to reality. It focuses on forestry interventions and their impact, the principles governing protection and on how we can better harness the enormous benefits forests offer. Case studies are drawn from several different countries and are used to illustrate the key points.Development specialists, forest managers and those involved with land and land-use will find this handbook a valuable and comprehensive overview of forest science and forestry practice. Researchers and students of biology, ecology and geography as well as forestry will find it equally accessible and useful.

Author Biography

Julian Evans is professor of Tropical Forestry at the Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of London and also holds an Honorary Chair at the University of Wales, Bangor, UK. He was formerly Chief Research Officer of the British Forestry Commission and is a Fellow of the Institute of Chartered Foresters. He is author of over 100 scientific papers and seven technical books on temperate and tropical forestry. Julian is a vice-chair of the Commonwealth Forestry Association and Country Vice-President for UK of the International Society of Tropical Foresters.

Table of Contents

List of contributors	xii
Preface to Volume 1	xiv
Preface to Volume 2	xvi
Acknowledgements	xvii
The History and Impact of Forest Management	1	(26)
Simon Rietbergen
Introduction	1	(2)
Environmentalist pseudo-histories	1	(1)
Forestry profession pseudo-history	2	(1)
Definition of forest management	2	(1)
Forest management typology	3	(1)
Studying forest management history	3	(2)
Evidence for woodland management in prehistoric Britain	3	(1)
Recent advances in forest history	4	(1)
Problems in finding and interpreting the evidence	4	(1)
The history of forest cover	5	(4)
Early human influence on forest cover: fire and hunting	6
Before farming: producing food by keeping forests in check?	9	(1)
From forest use to forest management	9	(3)
Forest and tree use in prehistory	9	(1)
Why manage forests? Why not?	10	(1)
When does use become management?	11	(1)
Forest management by non-professionals	12	(3)
Introduction	12	(1)
Neolithic forest management in Central Europe	12	(1)
Sacred groves in classical Eurasia	13	(1)
Beyond mere subsistence: the value of forests in early medieval Britain and late medieval Normandy	13	(1)
Intensive forest management by farmers in late nineteenth century China	14	(1)
Beating the foresters at their own game: Shorea javanica forests planted by farmers in Sumatra	14	(1)
Forest management by professionals	15	(3)
Repressive roots: protecting the king's forests against the people in medieval England	16	(1)
The deep roots of modern silviculture	16	(1)
Oberwolfach: from Femelwald to chessboard forestry and back	17	(1)
Operation successful, patient died: the Malayan Uniform System	17	(1)
Seeing the broadleaved trees for the conifer forest: participatory forest restoration in Nepal	18	(1)
The impact of forest management on forests	18	(2)
Biodiversity loss through discontinuing forest management practices	19	(1)
Conclusions: leaving the margins of history	20	(7)
The forestry profession: getting better with age?	21	(1)
Devising forest policies that work	21	(1)
Forestry development aid: learning to overcome Euro-professionalism	22	(1)
Let a thousand forests flourish	22	(5)
Part 1: Sustaining Forest Influences
Forest Reserves, Parks and Wilderness: An Australian Perspective	27	(26)
Roger Good
Introduction	27	(1)
Worldwide status of parks and reserves	27	(4)
A global perspective	27	(1)
Australian national parks and conservation reserves	28	(3)
A short history of forestry in Australia	31	(6)
Comprehensive regional forest assessments	37	(2)
Regional forest assessments and agreements	37	(1)
Outcomes of the Tasmanian Forest Assessment Process	38	(1)
Wilderness and forest management	39	(1)
Wilderness assessment and identification	40	(4)
Wilderness assessment in the comprehensive forest: assessment process	41	(2)
Assessment criteria	43	(1)
A new approach to wilderness assessment	44	(5)
The Brogo Wilderness Assessment Programme	45	(4)
Summary	49	(4)
Forests as Protection from Natural Hazards	53	(29)
Peter Brang
Walter Schonenberger
Ernst Ott
Barry Gardner
What is a protection forest?	53	(3)
Chapter overview	53	(1)
An early example	53	(1)
A definition of `protection forest'	53	(1)
Natural hazards that protection forests protect against	53	(2)
An important distinction: direct and indirect protection	55	(1)
Replacement of protection forests by artificial constructions	56	(1)
Occurrence and history of protection forests	56	(2)
Occurrence of protection forests	56	(1)
History of protection forests	57	(1)
Ecological characteristics of mountain forests	58	(2)
Environment of subalpine protection forests	58	(1)
Environment of montane protection forests	59	(1)
Tree species in protection forests	60	(1)
Stand dynamics, stand structure and stability properties in protection forests in the Alps	60	(4)
Why small-scale disturbances prevail in protection forests in the Alps	60	(1)
Duration of successional cycles	61	(1)
Characteristics favouring and impeding resistance of the tree layer to disturbance	61	(1)
Factors favouring and impeding recovery from disturbance	61	(1)
What is the ideal stand structure of a protection forest?	62	(1)
How natural should the structure of a protection forest be?	63	(1)
What is `stability' in a protection forest?	63	(1)
Suggested approach and principles for the management of protection forests	64	(3)
Goal and restrictions for the management of protection forests	65	(1)
management approach: mimic natural ecosystem dynamics	65	(2)
Three management principles	67	(1)
Suggested procedure to manage protection forests	67	(4)
Overview	67	(1)
First step: collect general information on the management area	67	(2)
Second step: design interventions	69	(2)
Third step: carry out interventions	71	(1)
Fourth step: monitor forest development	71	(1)
Examples of successful management of protection forests	71	(1)
Minimal tending in Switzerland	71	(1)
A structural typology in the northern French Alps	72	(1)
Shelterbelts	72	(3)
Introduction	72	(2)
Shelter of crops	74	(1)
Shelter of livestock	74	(1)
Shelter of buildings and roads	75	(1)
Shelterbelt design	75	(1)
Future management of protection forests	75	(1)
Conclusions	76	(6)
Interventions to enhance the conservation of biodiversity	82	(23)
Timothy J.B. Boyle
Background	82	(3)
What is forest biodiversity?	83	(1)
Biodiversity and sustainable management	84	(1)
Processes that maintain biodiversity	85	(1)
Assessing and predicting the status of biodiversity	85	(6)
Problems with assessment	85	(2)
Practical approaches to assessment and monitoring	87	(1)
The use of criteria and indicators	88	(1)
Prediction at non-sampled points	89	(2)
Human impacts on biodiversity and a framework for decision-making	91	(14)
Impacts of human activities on biodiversity	91	(4)
Impacts of global climate change	95	(1)
A system to assist in decisions to enhance conservation of biodiversity	96	(9)
Part 2: Sustainable Wood Production
Assessing Potential Sustainable Wood Yield	105	(24)
Robert F. Powers
Introduction	105	(3)
Aims of this chapter	105	(1)
The sustainability problem	105	(1)
Sustainability of what, and for whom?	105	(1)
Whose problem is it?	106	(1)
Searching for solutions	106	(2)
Sustainable wood yield	108	(8)
Definitions	108	(3)
Key concepts	111	(5)
Protecting the resource	116	(1)
A balancing act	116	(1)
Soil physical changes	117	(1)
Determining sustainable yield	117	(7)
Assessing site potential	117	(6)
Scheduling the harvest	123	(1)
Synthesis and summary	124	(5)
Silvicultural Treatments to Enhance Productivity	129	(11)
H. Lee Allen
Introduction	129	(1)
Ecophysiological basis for forest production	130	(2)
Production-leaf area relationships	130	(1)
Limiting resources	130	(2)
Silvicultural treatments	132	(4)
Water control	132	(1)
Tillage	132	(1)
Fire	133	(1)
Non-crop vegetation control	133	(1)
Thinning	134	(1)
Nutrient additions	135	(1)
Interactions among treatments	136	(1)
Future opportunities	136	(4)
Sustainable Management of Soil and Site	140	(32)
Lawrence A. Morris
Introduction	140	(1)
Requirements for sustainable soil management	140	(2)
Soil characteristics affecting root growth, water and nutrient supply	142	(6)
Soil as an environment for root growth	142	(2)
Nutrient supply	144	(4)
Tree growth as evidence for sustainability	148	(2)
Management impacts on the rooting environment	150	(2)
Compaction and rutting	150	(1)
The role of tillage	151	(1)
Erosion	152	(2)
Balancing inputs and outputs of nutrients	154	(5)
Nutrient balance in undisturbed and managed forests	154	(3)
Nutrient additions	157	(2)
Contamination	159	(3)
Soil acidification	160	(1)
Pesticides	160	(1)
Metals and salts	161	(1)
Soil biology	162	(2)
Conclusions	164	(8)
Management of Pest Threats	172	(30)
Hugh F. Evans
The aim of intervening in managed forests	172	(6)
Outbreaks of invertebrate pests: setting thresholds	172	(1)
Great Britain as an example of a region where pest infestation has resulted in active intervention	173	(2)
Pest risk assessment and the problems of exotic pests	175	(3)
Establishing the principles of pest management: integrated pest management	178	(3)
The biology and ecology of the pest as a basis for integrated pest management	178	(1)
Host selection	178	(1)
Tree suitability and initial rates of invertebrate colonization and growth	179	(2)
Why are some insects pests?	181	(13)
Risk factors in relation to pest population size	182	(1)
Spruce budworms in North America: a detailed example to illustrate the principles of pest dynamics and their links to forest structure and management	182	(7)
Gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, as an example of a non-indigenous pest that is still expanding its range	189	(1)
Dendroctonus micans in Britain as an example of successful integrated forest management of an introduced forest pest	190	(3)
Risk rating and management processes	193	(1)
Future developments in forest pest management	194	(8)
Genetically modified trees	194	(1)
Improvements in monitoring and use of conventional pest management techniques	195	(7)
Management of the Disease Burden	202	(19)
John N. Gibbs
Introduction	202	(1)
The characteristics of tree diseases	202	(2)
Causes of disease	202	(1)
The nature of disease	202	(1)
Disease caused by indigenous pathogens	203	(1)
Disease caused by introduced pathogens	203	(1)
Diseases caused by pathogens that have undergone genetic change	204	(1)
The exclusion and eradication of tree diseases	204	(2)
Exclusion	204	(2)
Eradication of an exotic pathogen	206	(1)
Management of established diseases	206	(8)
Diagnosis	206	(1)
Determination of disease distribution and severity	207	(2)
Disease prognosis	209	(1)
Deciding on a course of action or inaction	210	(1)
Cultural control	211	(1)
Control through the use of disease resistance	212	(1)
Chemical control	213	(1)
Biological control	214	(1)
Conclusions	214	(7)
Part 3: Sustaining Social Values and Benefits
Working with Forest Stakeholders	221	(12)
Stephen Bass
Assessing social values and planning with stakeholder groups	221	(7)
The importance of participation in assessing and realizing social values	221	(1)
The forest stakeholder	222	(2)
Identifying the main stakeholders, their interests and their relations	224	(4)
Partnerships in forest management: creating, realizing and sustaining social values	228	(5)
Collaborative forest management (government approaches to social values)	228	(1)
Corporate/community partnerships (private sector approaches to social values)	229	(1)
Preliminary guidance on partnerships that optimize social values	230	(1)
Remaining challenges for partnerships	231	(2)
The New Forest Policy and Joint Forest Management in India	233	(27)
Naresh C. Saxena
Introduction	233	(1)
Forest policy before 1988	234	(3)
Social forestry	236	(1)
The 1988 forest policy	237	(1)
Political factors behind change	237	(1)
The June 1990 guidelines and joint forest management	238	(4)
Progress of JFM in the states	240	(1)
Impact of the new forest policy and JFM on deforestation	241	(1)
Internal factors in community mobilization	242	(2)
Constraints of government policy and action	244	(6)
Rights of non-protecting people	245	(1)
Intervillage disputes	245	(1)
VFCs and panchayats	246	(1)
Marketing of NTFPs	247	(1)
Insensitivity to gender issues	248	(1)
Balance of power between forest departments and communities	249	(1)
JFM and the poorest	249	(1)
Changes in silviculture	250	(5)
Regeneration versus planting on degraded lands	253	(2)
Summing up	255	(5)
Trees in the Urban Environment: Some Practical Considerations	260	(15)
Kjell Nilsson
Thomas B. Randrup
Barbara L.M. Wandall
Introduction	260	(1)
Design aspects	260	(1)
Species selection for urban areas	261	(1)
Establishment techniques for urban trees	262	(2)
Planting holes	263	(1)
Securing adequate tree-water supply	263	(1)
Staking	264	(1)
Protection during construction	264	(1)
Care and maintenance of urban trees and forest stands	264	(3)
Pruning	265	(1)
Wound treatment	265	(1)
Hazardous trees including detection of fungi	266	(1)
Management of urban forest stands	266	(1)
Tree inventories	267	(1)
Conclusions	268	(7)
Research and professional coordination	268	(1)
Overview studies	268	(1)
Proceedings	268	(7)
Part 4: Case Studies of Sustainable Management
The Structure, Functioning and Management of Old-growth Cedar-Hemlock-Fir Forests on Vancouver Island, British Columbia	275	(13)
Gordon Weetman
Cindy Prescott
Introduction	275	(2)
Characteristics of forests of Vancouver Island	277	(1)
The hypothesis: explanations why hemlock/fir and cedar/hemlock sites differ	278	(1)
The `disturbance hypothesis'	278	(1)
The `salal hypothesis'	278	(1)
The `western red cedar hypothesis'	279	(1)
The `site-difference hypothesis'	279	(1)
Stand structure	279	(1)
Nutrient cycling	280	(2)
Management implications	282	(6)
Site preparation	282	(1)
Regeneration	282	(2)
Fertilization	284	(1)
Vegetation control	285	(1)
Recommendations for regenerating cedar-hemlock sites	285	(3)
The Beech Forests of Haute-Normandie, France	288	(10)
David Rose
Historical aspects of the forests of Haute-Normandie	288	(3)
Current silvicultural practice	291	(2)
Foret de Brotonne	293	(1)
Foret de Lyons	294	(1)
Foret de Bord and Foret de Louviers	294	(1)
Foret d'Eawy	295	(1)
Foret d'Eu	296	(1)
Conclusions	296	(2)
Restructuring of Plantation Forest: Kielder, United Kingdom	298	(12)
Graham Gill
Bob McIntosh
Introduction	298	(1)
Geography, early history and land use	298	(3)
Location	298	(1)
Geology and soils	298	(1)
Exposure and windthrow risk	299	(1)
Early history	299	(2)
Land use and tree productivity	301	(1)
Management objectives	301	(1)
Forest design planning	301	(2)
Design plan areas	302	(1)
Basic survey and appraisal	302	(1)
Design plan concept	302	(1)
Felling plans	302	(1)
Restocking plans	303	(1)
Tree species choice	303	(4)
Productivity and marketability	303	(1)
Visual impact	303	(1)
Silvicultural considerations	304	(1)
Wildlife conservation potential	304	(1)
Prescription for the choice of tree species	305	(2)
Forest operations	307	(1)
Harvesting of timber	307	(1)
Replanting (restocking)	307	(1)
Wildlife conservation	307	(1)
Recreation	308	(1)
Sustainability of yields	308	(1)
Conclusions	309	(1)
Sustainable Management of the Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell.) Forests in the Central Highlands, Victoria, Australia	310	(31)
Peter M. Attiwill
Jane M. Fewings
Introduction	310	(2)
The social and political environment for sustainability in Australia	312	(15)
Ownership of public forests in Australia	312	(1)
Interactions between the states and the Commonwealth	312	(1)
The development of Australian forest policy	313	(8)
The structures for sustainable forest management	321	(1)
National Forest Policy Statement	322	(1)
The Regional Forest Agreement Process	323	(2)
The international dimension of forest policy in Australia	325	(2)
Forest management for sustainability in the Central Highlands	327	(4)
The Central Highlands Regional Forest Agreement	327	(1)
Forest areas	328	(1)
Meeting the targets for a comprehensive, adequate and representative reserve system	329	(2)
The ecology and silviculture of mountain ash	331	(5)
A summary of the ecology of mountain ash	331	(1)
Silvicultural systems in mountain ash	332	(2)
Managing diversity and ecological processes	334	(2)
Concluding comment	336	(5)
Sustainable Management of Malaysian Rain Forest	341	(16)
Simmathiri Appanah
Introduction	341	(1)
Geography, geology and climate	341	(1)
Description of forests	342	(1)
Developments in exploitation and utilization	342	(3)
Silvicultural developments	345	(6)
Improvement fellings	345	(1)
Malayan Uniform System	346	(1)
Modified Malayan Uniform System	347	(1)
Selective Management System	348	(3)
Sustainable management	351	(2)
Forest reserves	351	(1)
National Forestry Acts and State Forest Enactments	351	(1)
Forest dwellers	351	(1)
Minor forest produce	351	(1)
Shelterwood systems	351	(1)
Selective fellings	352	(1)
Enrichment plantings	352	(1)
New developments in sustainable forest management	353	(1)
Reduced impact logging	353	(1)
Malaysian criteria and indicators	353	(1)
Model forests	353	(1)
New research initiatives	354	(1)
Plantations	354	(1)
Conclusions	354	(3)
Sustainable Plantation Forestry: A Case Study of Wood Production and Environmental Management Strategies in the Usutu Forest, Swaziland	357	(16)
Julian Evans
Peta Masson
Introduction	357	(1)
The Usutu Forest	357	(1)
The Usutu pulp mill	358	(1)
Sustainability of wood production	358	(4)
Assessment methods	358	(1)
Productivity in successive rotations	359	(2)
Discussion of sustainability	361	(1)
Conclusions concerning biological productivity	362	(1)
Environmental management	362	(5)
Introduction	362	(1)
Background	362	(1)
Key components of environmental management programme	363	(1)
Environmental impacts	363	(4)
Certification of sustainability	367	(2)
Planning	368	(1)
Sustainable management at the operational level	369	(1)
Conclusions	369	(4)
Synthesis and Conclusions	373	(2)
Julian Evans
Index	375	(17)
List of contributors	x
Preface	xii
Acknowledgements	xiv
Part 1: Forest Resources and Types
Global Forest Resources: History and Dynamics	3	(20)
Jim B. Ball
Historical perspective	3	(3)
Recent estimates of global forest area	6	(8)
Natural forests	8	(1)
Forest plantations	9	(5)
Changes in forest cover and condition	14	(6)
Changes in forest cover	14	(1)
Conversion of forests to other land cover	15	(3)
Changes in forest condition	18	(2)
Conclusions	20	(3)
Forest Types and Classification	23	(44)
Ronald L. Hendrick
Introduction	23	(1)
Boreal forests	23	(6)
Distribution and extent	24	(1)
Climate	24	(1)
Soils	25	(1)
Dominant forest types	25	(1)
Regional floras	26	(3)
Tropical and subtropical forests	29	(8)
Distribution and extent	29	(1)
Climate	30	(1)
Soils	30	(1)
Dominant forest types	31	(1)
Regional formations	31	(6)
Temperate broadleaf and coniferous forests	37	(16)
Distribution and extent	37	(1)
Climate	38	(1)
Soils	38	(1)
Regional formations	38	(15)
Savannahs and open woodland	53	(4)
Distribution and extent	54	(1)
Climate	54	(1)
Soils	54	(1)
Regional floras	55	(2)
Mediterranean ecosystems	57	(3)
Distribution and extent	58	(1)
Climate	58	(1)
Soils	58	(1)
Regional floras	58	(2)
Summary	60	(7)
Part 2: Biological and Ecological Processes
Genetics and Speciation in the World's Forests	67	(16)
Gene Namkoong
Mathew P. Koshy
Introduction	67	(1)
The wealth of forest tree species	68	(7)
Cladogenesis	69	(2)
Selection	71	(1)
Migration	72	(1)
Chromosomal change	73	(1)
Hybridization	74	(1)
The wealth of populations	75	(3)
The wealth of intrapopulation genetic variation	78	(2)
Conclusions	80	(3)
Structural Dynamics of Forest Stands and Natural Processes	83	(22)
George F. Peterken
What counts as disturbance?	83	(1)
Sources of disturbance	84	(4)
Wind	84	(1)
Fire	85	(1)
Drought	86	(1)
Biotic	86	(1)
Water	87	(1)
Ice	87	(1)
Topography and landform	87	(1)
Disturbance regimes	88	(1)
Tree and shrub responses	89	(2)
Forest structure and patterns	91	(2)
Dead wood	93	(1)
Dynamic pattern of forest composition	94	(4)
Highly disturbed environments	94	(1)
Relatively undisturbed environments	95	(1)
Interactins and intermediate conditions	96	(1)
Influence of people	97	(1)
Stability, succession and climax	98	(1)
People as agents of disturbance	99	(6)
Seminatural disturbances	99	(1)
Silvicultural systems	99	(2)
Traditional cultures as part of nature	101	(4)
Biological Interactions and Disturbance: Plants and Animals	105	(23)
Jaboury Ghazoul
Eunice A. Simmons
Introduction	105	(1)
Diversity and distribution of forest vertebrate resources	106	(2)
Habitat structure and some generalities of vertebrate responses to resource variability	106	(1)
Issues of scale	107	(1)
Vertebrate richness and diversity in primary and disturbed forests	108	(4)
Birds	110	(1)
Mammals	111	(1)
Amphibians	111	(1)
Reptiles	112	(1)
Vertebrate-mediated ecological processes and impacts of disturbance	112	(6)
Pollination	113	(1)
Seed predation	114	(1)
Seed dispersal	115	(2)
Herbivory	117	(1)
Vertebrate invaders as mediators of change	118	(1)
Economic value, hunting and tourism	118	(2)
Conclusions	120	(8)
Biological Interactions and Disturbance: Invertebrates	128	(29)
Hugh F. Evans
Description of processes or characteristics	128	(5)
Ecological attributes that determine the diversity and abundance of invertebrate species in forest ecosystems	128	(4)
Geographical isolation as a critical factor in determining invertebrate diversity and implications for international movement of pest organisms	132	(1)
Principles and dynamics that govern events and occurrence	133	(8)
Interactions with the food plant: phytophagous invertebrates (herbivores)	134	(2)
Interactions between herbivores and their natural enemies	136	(5)
Interactions with other processes, with scale and with forest type	141	(2)
Factors influencing processes and opportunities for manipulation	143	(4)
Forest fragmentation at local and landscape scales	145	(1)
Forest disturbance as a factor in invertebrate dynamics	146	(1)
Understanding the forest as a basis for management	147	(10)
Part 3: Environmental Interactions
Forest Soils	157	(31)
Peter M. Attiwill
Christopher J. Weston
Introduction	157	(1)
Scope of this chapter	157	(1)
Nutrient cycling in forests	158	(6)
Soil chemistry and nutrient cycling	158	(4)
Roots and the rhizosphere	162	(2)
Litter and soil organic matter	164	(6)
Litter and litter decomposition	164	(2)
Carbon in forest soils	166	(4)
Forest soils and acidic inputs	170	(3)
Forest decline	170	(2)
Nitrogen saturation	172	(1)
Timber harvesting and sustainability	173	(15)
Timber harvesting, nutrient removal and sustained productivity	173	(6)
Timber harvesting, soil compaction and sustainability	179	(9)
Ecophysiology of Forests	188	(22)
Richard H. Waring
Anthony R. Ludlow
Introduction	188	(1)
Responses of forests to variation in climate	188	(4)
Determination of temperature optimum and limits	189	(1)
Physiological definition of soil drought	189	(1)
Sapwood as a water reservoir in trees	190	(1)
Transpiration by forests	191	(1)
Responses of forests to variation in nutrient availability	192	(1)
Optimum nutrition	192	(1)
Internal recycling of nutrients	193	(1)
Carbon balance analyses	193	(6)
Canopy photosynthesis	194	(1)
Autotrophic respiration	195	(1)
Net primary production	196	(1)
Allocation of carbon resources	197	(2)
Susceptibility of forests to herbivores and pathogens	199	(3)
Biochemical and structural defences	199	(1)
Biochemical and allocation ratios	200	(2)
Ecophysiological models of forest growth	202	(2)
Summary	204	(6)
Models for Pure and Mixed Forests	210	(19)
Hans Pretzsch
Introduction	210	(1)
Patterns and dynamics of growth: empirical observations	210	(2)
Periodicity and pattern in individual tree growth	210	(1)
Dynamics of stand growth	211	(1)
Interventions and manipulations	212	(1)
Growth models	212	(17)
Stand growth models based on mean stand variables	214	(1)
Stand-orientated management models predicting stem number frequency	215	(2)
Single-tree orientated management models	217	(2)
Ecophysiological growth models	219	(2)
Gap models and biome shift models	221	(1)
Hybrid models for forest management	222	(1)
Management model SILVA 2.2 for pure and mixed stands	222	(7)
Forests and the Atmosphere	229	(53)
Paul G. Jarvis
David G. Fowler
Introduction	229	(3)
Spatial and temporal scales	229	(2)
Historical development	231	(1)
The stand system	232	(1)
Stand energy balance	232	(2)
Radiation exchange	234	(2)
Solar radiation albedo	234	(1)
Long-wave radiation exchange	235	(1)
Net all-wave radiation balance	235	(1)
Momentum exchange	236	(1)
Exchange of scalars	236	(3)
Aerodynamic conductance/resistance	238	(1)
Surface conductance/resistance	239	(1)
Evaporation and transpiration	239	(5)
Driving variables and constraints	239	(1)
Evaporation of intercepted water	240	(1)
Evaporation of transpired water	241	(3)
Some conclusions	244	(1)
Carbon dioxide exchange	244	(11)
The policy imperative	244	(1)
Forests as a carbon pump	245	(1)
Dynamics of carbon dioxide exchange	246	(2)
Net transfer of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to forests	248	(3)
Carbon balance components	251	(1)
Future carbon sequestration potential	252	(3)
Trace gases, aerosols and cloud droplets	255	(14)
Acid gases: HC1, HNO3, HF	255	(2)
Ammonia	257	(4)
Sulphur dioxide	261	(1)
Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide	262	(2)
Ozone	264	(2)
Aerosols and cloud droplets	266	(2)
Diurnal and seasonal cycles	268	(1)
Ecological effects of nitrogen deposition	269	(3)
Nitrogen-stimulated carbon sequestration	271	(1)
Forests and regional climates	272	(1)
Conclusions	273	(9)
Environmental Stresses to Forests	282	(19)
Peter H. Freer-Smith
Introduction	282	(1)
Climate	283	(4)
Pollution	287	(8)
Direct effects	288	(1)
Indirect effects and soil acidification	288	(5)
Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide	293	(1)
Nitrogen depositions	294	(1)
Water deficit	295	(1)
Soil conditions, nutrient deficiency/enrichment and soil degradation	296	(2)
Conclusions	298	(3)
Forest Hydrology	301	(46)
L.A. (Sampurno) Bruijnzeel
Introduction	301	(1)
Forest hydrological cycle	302	(2)
Forests and `occult' precipitation	304	(2)
Throughfall, stemflow and interception loss	306	(8)
Amounts and measurement of rainfall interception	306	(3)
Litter interception	309	(1)
Interception modelling	309	(5)
Transpiration	314	(5)
Amounts and measurement of transpiration	314	(4)
Transpiration modelling	318	(1)
Total evapotranspiration	319	(2)
Hydrological effects of forest manipulation	321	(12)
Effects of forest thinning on rainfall interception	321	(1)
Effects of thinning and selective logging on transpiration and water yield	322	(2)
Effect of forest clearfelling on water yield	324	(4)
Effects of converting natural forest to other land cover types on water yield	328	(1)
Effects of forest clearing on streamflow regimes	329	(1)
Hydrological effects of (re)forestation	330	(2)
Modelling the hydrological impacts of forest manipulation and land-use change	332	(1)
Outlook	333	(14)
Part 4: Social and Human Interface
Trees in the Urban Environment	347	(15)
Kjell Nilsson
Thomas B. Randrup
Barbara M. Wandall
Introduction	347	(1)
Definitions	347	(1)
Urban growing conditions	348	(2)
Stress factors	349	(1)
Characteristics and restriction of rooting in the built environment	350	(1)
Urban characteristics/environment analysed	350	(1)
Amenity values/benefits of urban forests and trees	351	(2)
Economic impact	351	(1)
Recreational use of green areas	351	(1)
Psychological aspects	352	(1)
Environmental education	352	(1)
Community involvement	353	(1)
Environmental aspects	353	(2)
Local-scale climate	353	(1)
Air quality	354	(1)
Biodiversity	354	(1)
Sustainable urban forests	355	(1)
Threats to green areas	355	(1)
Urbanization pressure	355	(1)
Social factors	356	(1)
Economic cuts	356	(1)
Planning and management of urban green areas	356	(2)
Green infrastructure planning	357	(1)
Conflicts in management	358	(1)
Conclusions	358	(4)
The Importance of Social Values	362	(10)
Stephen Bass
Sustainable forest management involves political and social processes	362	(1)
Forests provide multiple social values	363	(3)
The challenge of achieving security of forest values	366	(1)
People's means to achieve security of forest values	367	(2)
Traditional knowledge	367	(1)
Rights	368	(1)
Reasons for nurturing social values in commercial forest management	369	(1)
Codes of practice and certification standards on social issues	369	(1)
Conclusions	370	(2)
Non-timber Forest Products and Rural Poverty: an Economic Analysis	372	(20)
William Cavendish
Why non-timber forest products and rural poverty?	372	(2)
Economic characteristics of rural households	374	(2)
Value of NTFPs to rural households and the causes of NTFP use	376	(7)
Evidence on rural households' use of NTFPs	376	(5)
Economic underpinnings of rural households' extensive use of NTFPs	381	(2)
Can rural development be based around NTFPs?	383	(5)
The problem of preferences	383	(2)
High transactions costs of trading	385	(1)
Storage problems	386	(1)
Production risk	386	(1)
Open access and the costs of privatization	386	(1)
Incentives for domestication and technical substitution	387	(1)
Conclusions	388	(4)
Synthesis and conclusions	392	(2)
Index	394