The Forests Handbook, Volume 1 An Overview of Forest Science

by Evans, Julian

• ISBN13: 9780632048212
• ISBN10: 0632048212
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-03-05
• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell

Summary

The future of the world's forests is at the forefront of environmental debate. Rising concerns over the effects of deforestation and climate change are highlighting the need both to conserve and manage existing forests and woodland through sustainable forestry practices. The Forests Handbook, written by an international team of both scientists and practitioners, presents an integrated approach to forests and forestry, applying our present understanding of forest science to management practices, as a basis for achieving sustainability.Volume One presents an overview of the world's forests; their locations and what they are like, the science of how they operate as complex ecosystems and how they interact with their environment. Volume Two applies this science to reality; it focuses on forestry interventions and their impact, the principles governing how to protect forests and on how we can better harness the enormous benefits forests offer. Case studies are drawn from several different countries and are used to illustrate the key points.Development specialists, forest managers and those involved with land and land-use will find this handbook a valuable and comprehensive overview of forest science and forestry practice. Researchers and students of forestry, biology, ecology and geography will find it equally accessible and useful.

Author Biography

Julian Evans is professor of Tropical Forestry at the Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of London and also holds an Honorary Chair at the University of Wales, Bangor, UK. He was formerly Chief Research Officer of the British Forestry Commission and is a Fellow of the Institute of Chartered Foresters. He is author of over 100 scientific papers and seven technical books on temperate and tropical forestry. Julian is a vice-chair of the Commonwealth Forestry Association and Country Vice-President for UK of the International Society of Tropical Foresters (IUSF).

Table of Contents

List of contributors	x
Preface	xii
Acknowledgements	xiv
Part 1: Forest Resources and Types
Global Forest Resources: History and Dynamics	3	(20)
Jim B. Ball
Historical perspective	3	(3)
Recent estimates of global forest area	6	(8)
Natural forests	8	(1)
Forest plantations	9	(5)
Changes in forest cover and condition	14	(6)
Changes in forest cover	14	(1)
Conversion of forests to other land cover	15	(3)
Changes in forest condition	18	(2)
Conclusions	20	(3)
Forest Types and Classification	23	(44)
Ronald L. Hendrick
Introduction	23	(1)
Boreal forests	23	(6)
Distribution and extent	24	(1)
Climate	24	(1)
Soils	25	(1)
Dominant forest types	25	(1)
Regional floras	26	(3)
Tropical and subtropical forests	29	(8)
Distribution and extent	29	(1)
Climate	30	(1)
Soils	30	(1)
Dominant forest types	31	(1)
Regional formations	31	(6)
Temperate broadleaf and coniferous forests	37	(16)
Distribution and extent	37	(1)
Climate	38	(1)
Soils	38	(1)
Regional formations	38	(15)
Savannahs and open woodland	53	(4)
Distribution and extent	54	(1)
Climate	54	(1)
Soils	54	(1)
Regional floras	55	(2)
Mediterranean ecosystems	57	(3)
Distribution and extent	58	(1)
Climate	58	(1)
Soils	58	(1)
Regional floras	58	(2)
Summary	60	(7)
Part 2: Biological and Ecological Processes
Genetics and Speciation in the World's Forests	67	(16)
Gene Namkoong
Mathew P. Koshy
Introduction	67	(1)
The wealth of forest tree species	68	(7)
Cladogenesis	69	(2)
Selection	71	(1)
Migration	72	(1)
Chromosomal change	73	(1)
Hybridization	74	(1)
The wealth of populations	75	(3)
The wealth of intrapopulation genetic variation	78	(2)
Conclusions	80	(3)
Structural Dynamics of Forest Stands and Natural Processes	83	(22)
George F. Peterken
What counts as disturbance?	83	(1)
Sources of disturbance	84	(4)
Wind	84	(1)
Fire	85	(1)
Drought	86	(1)
Biotic	86	(1)
Water	87	(1)
Ice	87	(1)
Topography and landform	87	(1)
Disturbance regimes	88	(1)
Tree and shrub responses	89	(2)
Forest structure and patterns	91	(2)
Dead wood	93	(1)
Dynamic pattern of forest composition	94	(4)
Highly disturbed environments	94	(1)
Relatively undisturbed environments	95	(1)
Interactins and intermediate conditions	96	(1)
Influence of people	97	(1)
Stability, succession and climax	98	(1)
People as agents of disturbance	99	(6)
Seminatural disturbances	99	(1)
Silvicultural systems	99	(2)
Traditional cultures as part of nature	101	(4)
Biological Interactions and Disturbance: Plants and Animals	105	(23)
Jaboury Ghazoul
Eunice A. Simmons
Introduction	105	(1)
Diversity and distribution of forest vertebrate resources	106	(2)
Habitat structure and some generalities of vertebrate responses to resource variability	106	(1)
Issues of scale	107	(1)
Vertebrate richness and diversity in primary and disturbed forests	108	(4)
Birds	110	(1)
Mammals	111	(1)
Amphibians	111	(1)
Reptiles	112	(1)
Vertebrate-mediated ecological processes and impacts of disturbance	112	(6)
Pollination	113	(1)
Seed predation	114	(1)
Seed dispersal	115	(2)
Herbivory	117	(1)
Vertebrate invaders as mediators of change	118	(1)
Economic value, hunting and tourism	118	(2)
Conclusions	120	(8)
Biological Interactions and Disturbance: Invertebrates	128	(29)
Hugh F. Evans
Description of processes or characteristics	128	(5)
Ecological attributes that determine the diversity and abundance of invertebrate species in forest ecosystems	128	(4)
Geographical isolation as a critical factor in determining invertebrate diversity and implications for international movement of pest organisms	132	(1)
Principles and dynamics that govern events and occurrence	133	(8)
Interactions with the food plant: phytophagous invertebrates (herbivores)	134	(2)
Interactions between herbivores and their natural enemies	136	(5)
Interactions with other processes, with scale and with forest type	141	(2)
Factors influencing processes and opportunities for manipulation	143	(4)
Forest fragmentation at local and landscape scales	145	(1)
Forest disturbance as a factor in invertebrate dynamics	146	(1)
Understanding the forest as a basis for management	147	(10)
Part 3: Environmental Interactions
Forest Soils	157	(31)
Peter M. Attiwill
Christopher J. Weston
Introduction	157	(1)
Scope of this chapter	157	(1)
Nutrient cycling in forests	158	(6)
Soil chemistry and nutrient cycling	158	(4)
Roots and the rhizosphere	162	(2)
Litter and soil organic matter	164	(6)
Litter and litter decomposition	164	(2)
Carbon in forest soils	166	(4)
Forest soils and acidic inputs	170	(3)
Forest decline	170	(2)
Nitrogen saturation	172	(1)
Timber harvesting and sustainability	173	(15)
Timber harvesting, nutrient removal and sustained productivity	173	(6)
Timber harvesting, soil compaction and sustainability	179	(9)
Ecophysiology of Forests	188	(22)
Richard H. Waring
Anthony R. Ludlow
Introduction	188	(1)
Responses of forests to variation in climate	188	(4)
Determination of temperature optimum and limits	189	(1)
Physiological definition of soil drought	189	(1)
Sapwood as a water reservoir in trees	190	(1)
Transpiration by forests	191	(1)
Responses of forests to variation in nutrient availability	192	(1)
Optimum nutrition	192	(1)
Internal recycling of nutrients	193	(1)
Carbon balance analyses	193	(6)
Canopy photosynthesis	194	(1)
Autotrophic respiration	195	(1)
Net primary production	196	(1)
Allocation of carbon resources	197	(2)
Susceptibility of forests to herbivores and pathogens	199	(3)
Biochemical and structural defences	199	(1)
Biochemical and allocation ratios	200	(2)
Ecophysiological models of forest growth	202	(2)
Summary	204	(6)
Models for Pure and Mixed Forests	210	(19)
Hans Pretzsch
Introduction	210	(1)
Patterns and dynamics of growth: empirical observations	210	(2)
Periodicity and pattern in individual tree growth	210	(1)
Dynamics of stand growth	211	(1)
Interventions and manipulations	212	(1)
Growth models	212	(17)
Stand growth models based on mean stand variables	214	(1)
Stand-orientated management models predicting stem number frequency	215	(2)
Single-tree orientated management models	217	(2)
Ecophysiological growth models	219	(2)
Gap models and biome shift models	221	(1)
Hybrid models for forest management	222	(1)
Management model SILVA 2.2 for pure and mixed stands	222	(7)
Forests and the Atmosphere	229	(53)
Paul G. Jarvis
David G. Fowler
Introduction	229	(3)
Spatial and temporal scales	229	(2)
Historical development	231	(1)
The stand system	232	(1)
Stand energy balance	232	(2)
Radiation exchange	234	(2)
Solar radiation albedo	234	(1)
Long-wave radiation exchange	235	(1)
Net all-wave radiation balance	235	(1)
Momentum exchange	236	(1)
Exchange of scalars	236	(3)
Aerodynamic conductance/resistance	238	(1)
Surface conductance/resistance	239	(1)
Evaporation and transpiration	239	(5)
Driving variables and constraints	239	(1)
Evaporation of intercepted water	240	(1)
Evaporation of transpired water	241	(3)
Some conclusions	244	(1)
Carbon dioxide exchange	244	(11)
The policy imperative	244	(1)
Forests as a carbon pump	245	(1)
Dynamics of carbon dioxide exchange	246	(2)
Net transfer of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to forests	248	(3)
Carbon balance components	251	(1)
Future carbon sequestration potential	252	(3)
Trace gases, aerosols and cloud droplets	255	(14)
Acid gases: HC1, HNO3, HF	255	(2)
Ammonia	257	(4)
Sulphur dioxide	261	(1)
Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide	262	(2)
Ozone	264	(2)
Aerosols and cloud droplets	266	(2)
Diurnal and seasonal cycles	268	(1)
Ecological effects of nitrogen deposition	269	(3)
Nitrogen-stimulated carbon sequestration	271	(1)
Forests and regional climates	272	(1)
Conclusions	273	(9)
Environmental Stresses to Forests	282	(19)
Peter H. Freer-Smith
Introduction	282	(1)
Climate	283	(4)
Pollution	287	(8)
Direct effects	288	(1)
Indirect effects and soil acidification	288	(5)
Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide	293	(1)
Nitrogen depositions	294	(1)
Water deficit	295	(1)
Soil conditions, nutrient deficiency/enrichment and soil degradation	296	(2)
Conclusions	298	(3)
Forest Hydrology	301	(46)
L.A. (Sampurno) Bruijnzeel
Introduction	301	(1)
Forest hydrological cycle	302	(2)
Forests and `occult' precipitation	304	(2)
Throughfall, stemflow and interception loss	306	(8)
Amounts and measurement of rainfall interception	306	(3)
Litter interception	309	(1)
Interception modelling	309	(5)
Transpiration	314	(5)
Amounts and measurement of transpiration	314	(4)
Transpiration modelling	318	(1)
Total evapotranspiration	319	(2)
Hydrological effects of forest manipulation	321	(12)
Effects of forest thinning on rainfall interception	321	(1)
Effects of thinning and selective logging on transpiration and water yield	322	(2)
Effect of forest clearfelling on water yield	324	(4)
Effects of converting natural forest to other land cover types on water yield	328	(1)
Effects of forest clearing on streamflow regimes	329	(1)
Hydrological effects of (re)forestation	330	(2)
Modelling the hydrological impacts of forest manipulation and land-use change	332	(1)
Outlook	333	(14)
Part 4: Social and Human Interface
Trees in the Urban Environment	347	(15)
Kjell Nilsson
Thomas B. Randrup
Barbara M. Wandall
Introduction	347	(1)
Definitions	347	(1)
Urban growing conditions	348	(2)
Stress factors	349	(1)
Characteristics and restriction of rooting in the built environment	350	(1)
Urban characteristics/environment analysed	350	(1)
Amenity values/benefits of urban forests and trees	351	(2)
Economic impact	351	(1)
Recreational use of green areas	351	(1)
Psychological aspects	352	(1)
Environmental education	352	(1)
Community involvement	353	(1)
Environmental aspects	353	(2)
Local-scale climate	353	(1)
Air quality	354	(1)
Biodiversity	354	(1)
Sustainable urban forests	355	(1)
Threats to green areas	355	(1)
Urbanization pressure	355	(1)
Social factors	356	(1)
Economic cuts	356	(1)
Planning and management of urban green areas	356	(2)
Green infrastructure planning	357	(1)
Conflicts in management	358	(1)
Conclusions	358	(4)
The Importance of Social Values	362	(10)
Stephen Bass
Sustainable forest management involves political and social processes	362	(1)
Forests provide multiple social values	363	(3)
The challenge of achieving security of forest values	366	(1)
People's means to achieve security of forest values	367	(2)
Traditional knowledge	367	(1)
Rights	368	(1)
Reasons for nurturing social values in commercial forest management	369	(1)
Codes of practice and certification standards on social issues	369	(1)
Conclusions	370	(2)
Non-timber Forest Products and Rural Poverty: an Economic Analysis	372	(20)
William Cavendish
Why non-timber forest products and rural poverty?	372	(2)
Economic characteristics of rural households	374	(2)
Value of NTFPs to rural households and the causes of NTFP use	376	(7)
Evidence on rural households' use of NTFPs	376	(5)
Economic underpinnings of rural households' extensive use of NTFPs	381	(2)
Can rural development be based around NTFPs?	383	(5)
The problem of preferences	383	(2)
High transactions costs of trading	385	(1)
Storage problems	386	(1)
Production risk	386	(1)
Open access and the costs of privatization	386	(1)
Incentives for domestication and technical substitution	387	(1)
Conclusions	388	(4)
Synthesis and conclusions	392	(2)
Index	394