Foundations of Earth Science

by Lutgens, Frederick K; Tarbuck, Edward J.; Tasa, Dennis

• ISBN13: 9780131447509
• ISBN10: 0131447505
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-01-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

This highly visual, non-technical survey emphasizes broad, up-to-date coverage of basic topics and principles in geology, oceanography, meteorology, and astronomy, giving readers a sense of the observational techniques and reasoning processes that characterize the field of earth science. First-rate illustrations and a thoroughly revised narrative reflect the latest research and schools of thought.New introductory section explores the concept of Earth as a system composed of many interacting subsystems. Includes 100+ pieces of new or revised art, plus expanded discussions of minerals, stream erosion, causes of floods, landslides, glaciers, folds and faults, volcanic hazards, global warming, and severe storms. Also features n ew findings and revealing photos from the 2004 Spirit rover expedition.For anyone interested in learning more about earth science.

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
Introduction to Earth Science	1	(1)
Focus on Learning	1	(1)
What Is Earth Science?	2	(1)
A View of Earth	3	(2)
Hydrosphere	4	(1)
Atmosphere	4	(1)
Solid Earth	4	(1)
Biosphere	5	(1)
Earth as a System	5	(2)
Resources and Environmental Issues	7	(1)
Resources	7	(1)
Environmental Problems	8	(1)
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry	8	(3)
Hypothesis	9	(1)
Theory	10	(1)
Scientific Methods	10	(1)
Studying Earth Science	11	(3)
The Chapter in Review	11	(1)
Key Terms	12	(1)
Questions for Review	12	(1)
Online Study Guide	13	(1)
UNIT I EARTH MATERIALS	14	(46)
Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks	15	(18)
Focus on Learning	15	(1)
Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks	16	(2)
Composition and Structure of Minerals	18	(3)
How Atoms are Constructed	19	(1)
How Atoms Bond	19	(1)
Isotopes and Radioactive Decay	20	(1)
Properties of Minerals	21	(3)
Crustal Form	21	(1)
Luster	22	(1)
Color	22	(1)
Streak	22	(1)
Hardness	22	(1)
Cleavage and Fracture	23	(1)
Specific Gravity	23	(1)
Other Properties of Minerals	24	(1)
Mineral Groups	24	(3)
Rock-Forming Silicates	25	(1)
Important Nonsilicate Minerals	25	(2)
Mineral Resources	27	(6)
The Chapter in Review	29	(1)
Key Terms	30	(1)
Questions for Review	30	(1)
Online Study Guide	31	(2)
Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth	33	(27)
Focus on Learning	33	(1)
Earth as a System: The Rock Cycle	34	(2)
The Basic Cycle	35	(1)
Alternative Paths	36	(1)
Igneous Rocks: ``Formed by Fire''	36	(7)
Magma Crystallizes to Form Igneous Rocks	37	(1)
Igneous Textures	38	(1)
Igneous Compositions	39	(2)
How Different Igneous Rocks Form	41	(2)
Weathering of Rocks to Form Sediment	43	(3)
Mechanical Weathering of Rocks	43	(1)
Chemical Weathering of Rocks	44	(2)
Sedimentary Rocks: Compacted and Cemented Sediment	46	(7)
Classifying Sedimentary Rocks	47	(4)
Lithification of Sediment	51	(1)
Features of Sedimentary Rocks	52	(1)
Metamorphic Rocks: New Rock from Old	53	(7)
Agents of Metamorphism	54	(1)
Metamorphic Textures	54	(1)
Common Metamorphic Rocks	55	(3)
The Chapter in Review	58	(1)
Key Terms	59	(1)
Questions for Review	59	(1)
Online Study Guide	59	(1)
UNIT II SCULPTURING EARTH'S SURFACE	60	(60)
Landscapes Fashioned by Water	61	(32)
Focus on Learning	61	(1)
Earth's External Processes	62	(1)
Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity	62	(3)
Mass Wasting and Landform Development	62	(1)
Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting	63	(2)
The Water Cycle	65	(1)
Running Water	66	(2)
Streamflow	66	(2)
Changes from Upstream to Downstream	68	(1)
Base Level	68	(1)
The Work of Streams	69	(4)
Erosion	69	(1)
Transportation	69	(2)
Deposition	71	(2)
Stream Valleys	73	(2)
Narrow Valleys	73	(1)
Wide Valleys	73	(2)
Floods and Flood Control	75	(2)
Causes of Floods	75	(1)
Flood Control	75	(2)
Drainage Basins and Patterns	77	(1)
Water Beneath the Surface	78	(2)
The Importance of Groundwater	78	(1)
Groundwater's Geological Roles	79	(1)
Distribution and Movement of Groundwater	80	(2)
Distribution	80	(1)
Movement	81	(1)
Springs	82	(1)
Hot Springs	82	(1)
Geysers	82	(1)
Wells	83	(1)
Artesian Wells	83	(1)
Environmental Problems of Groundwater	84	(3)
Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource	84	(1)
Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Withdrawal	85	(1)
Groundwater Contamination	85	(2)
The Geologic Work of Groundwater	87	(6)
Caverns	87	(1)
Karst Topography	88	(1)
The Chapter in Review	89	(1)
Key Terms	90	(1)
Questions for Review	91	(1)
Online Study Guide	91	(2)
Glacial and Arid Landscapes	93	(27)
Focus on Learning	93	(1)
Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles	94	(1)
Valley (Alpine) Glaciers	94	(1)
Ice Sheets	94	(1)
Other Types of Glaciers	94	(1)
How Glaciers Move	95	(3)
Observing and Measuring Movement	95	(1)
Accumulation and Wastage	96	(2)
Glacial Erosion	98	(3)
How Glaciers Erode	98	(1)
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion	99	(2)
Glacial Deposits	101	(4)
Types of Glacial Drift	101	(1)
Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles	102	(2)
Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames	104	(1)
Glaciers of the Ice Age	105	(1)
Some Indirect Effects of Ice Age Glaciers	106	(1)
Deserts	107	(4)
Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands	107	(1)
The Role of Water in Arid Climates	108	(3)
Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape	111	(1)
Wind Erosion	112	(2)
Deflation, Blowouts, and Desert Pavement	113	(1)
Wind Abrasion	114	(1)
Wind Deposits	114	(6)
Loess	114	(1)
Sand Dunes	114	(3)
The Chapter in Review	117	(1)
Key Terms	118	(1)
Questions for Review	118	(1)
Online Study Guide	118	(2)
UNIT III FORCES WITHIN	120	(92)
Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Theory Unfolds	121	(30)
Focus on Learning	121	(1)
Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time	122	(4)
Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle	123	(1)
Evidence: Fossils Match Across the Sea	123	(2)
Evidence: Rock Types and Structures Match	125	(1)
Evidence: Ancient Climates	125	(1)
The Great Debate	126	(1)
Plate Tectonics: A Modern Version of an Old Idea	126	(4)
Earth's Major Plates	127	(3)
Plate Boundaries	130	(1)
Divergent Boundaries	130	(2)
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading	130	(1)
Continental Rifting	131	(1)
Convergent Boundaries	132	(5)
Oceanic--Continental Convergence	134	(1)
Oceanic--Oceanic Convergence	135	(1)
Continental-Continental Convergence	135	(2)
Transform Fault Boundaries	137	(1)
Testing the Plate Tectonics Model	138	(6)
Evidence: Ocean Drilling	138	(1)
Evidence: Hot Spots	139	(1)
Evidence: Paleomagnetism	140	(4)
The Breakup of Pangaea	144	(1)
What Drives Plate Motions?	145	(6)
Forces that Drive Plate Motion	146	(1)
Models of Plate-Mantle Convection	146	(2)
The Chapter in Review	148	(1)
Key Terms	148	(1)
Questions for Review	149	(1)
Online Study Guide	149	(2)
Restless Earth: Earthquakes, Geologic Structures, and Mountain Building	151	(42)
Focus on Learning	151	(2)
What Is an Earthquake?	153	(3)
Earthquakes and Faults	153	(1)
Discovering the Cause of Earthquakes	154	(1)
Foreshocks and Aftershocks	154	(2)
Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves	156	(2)
Locating an Earthquake	158	(1)
Measuring the Size of Earthquakes	159	(3)
Intensity Scales	159	(1)
Magnitude Scales	160	(2)
Destruction from Earthquakes	162	(3)
Seismic Vibrations Damage Structures	162	(1)
Tsunami	163	(1)
Fire	164	(1)
Landslides and Ground Subsidence	164	(1)
Earth's Layered Structure	165	(2)
Layers Defined by Composition	165	(1)
Layers Defined by Physical Properties	166	(1)
Geologic Structures	167	(6)
Rock Deformation	167	(1)
Folds	168	(2)
Faults	170	(3)
Mountain Building	173	(1)
Mountain Building at Convergent Boundaries	174	(19)
Convergence and Subducting Plates	174	(2)
Continental Collisions	176	(1)
Terranes and Mountain Building	176	(3)
The Chapter in Review	179	(1)
Key Terms	180	(1)
Questions for Review	181	(1)
Online Study Guide	181	(12)
Fires Within: Igneous Activity	193	(19)
Focus on Learning	183	(2)
The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions	185	(2)
Factors Affecting Viscosity	186	(1)
Importance of Dissolved Gases in Magma	186	(1)
What Is Extruded During Eruptions?	187	(2)
Lava Flows	187	(1)
Gases	188	(1)
Pyroclastic Materials	189	(1)
Volcanic Structures and Eruptive Styles	189	(6)
Anatomy of a Volcano	189	(2)
Shield Volcanoes	191	(1)
Cinder Cones	192	(2)
Composite Cones	194	(1)
Living in the Shadow of a Composite Cone	195	(2)
Nuee Ardente: A Deadly Pyroclastic Flow	195	(1)
Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones	196	(1)
Other Volcanic Landforms	197	(3)
Calderas	197	(2)
Fissure Eruptions and Lava Plateaus	199	(1)
Volcanic Pipes and Necks	199	(1)
Intrusive Igneous Activity	200	(3)
Dikes	202	(1)
Sills and Laccoliths	202	(1)
Batholiths	202	(1)
Plate Tectonics and Igneous Activity	203	(9)
Igneous Activity at Convergent Plate Boundaries	204	(1)
Igneous Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries	205	(1)
Intraplate Igneous Activity	205	(4)
The Chapter in Review	209	(1)
Key Terms	209	(1)
Questions for Review	210	(1)
Online Study Guide	211	(1)
UNIT IV DECIPHERING EARTH'S HISTORY	212	(22)
Geologic Time	213	(21)
Focus on Learning	213	(1)
Geology Needs a time Scale	214	(1)
Some Historical Notes About Geology	215	(1)
Catastrophism	215	(1)
The Birth of Modern Geology	215	(1)
Geology Today	215	(1)
Relative Dating---Key Principles	216	(4)
Law of Superposition	216	(1)
Principle of Original Horizontality	217	(1)
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships	217	(1)
Inclusions	217	(1)
Unconformities	218	(1)
Using Relative Dating Principles	219	(1)
Correlation of Rock Layers	220	(1)
Fossils: Evidence of Past Life	221	(3)
Conditions Favoring Preservation	223	(1)
Fossils and Correlation	223	(1)
Dating with Radioactivity	224	(5)
Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure	224	(1)
Radioactivity	225	(1)
Half-Life	226	(1)
Radiometric Dating	226	(3)
The Geologic Time Scale	229	(1)
Structure of the Time Scale	229	(1)
Precambrian Time	229	(1)
Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale	230	(4)
The Chapter in Review	231	(1)
Key Terms	231	(1)
Questions for Review	232	(1)
Online Study Guide	233	(1)
UNIT V THE GLOBAL OCEAN	234	(46)
Oceans: The Last Frontier	235	(20)
Focus on Learning	235	(1)
The Vast World Ocean	236	(1)
Geography of the Oceans	236	(1)
Comparing the Oceans to the Continents	237	(1)
Composition of Seawater	237	(1)
Salinity	237	(1)
Sources of Sea Salts	237	(1)
Processes Affecting Seawater Salinity	238	(1)
The Ocean's Layered Structure	238	(1)
Mapping the Ocean Floor	239	(2)
Bathymetric Techniques	239	(1)
Viewing the Ocean Floor from Space	240	(1)
Provinces of the Ocean Floor	241	(1)
Continental Margins	241	(5)
Passive Continental Margins	241	(4)
Active Continental Margins	245	(1)
Deep-Ocean Basin	246	(1)
Deep-Ocean Trenches	246	(1)
Abyssal Plains	246	(1)
Seamounts and Guyots	246	(1)
The Oceanic Ridge	247	(1)
Seafloor Sediments	248	(7)
Types of Seafloor Sediments	248	(1)
Distribution of Seafloor Sediments	249	(1)
Seafloor Sediments and Climate Change	250	(1)
The Chapter in Review	251	(1)
Key Terms	252	(1)
Questions for Review	252	(1)
Online Study Guide	253	(2)
The Restless Ocean	255	(25)
Focus on Learning	255	(1)
Surface Circulation	256	(3)
Ocean Circulation Patterns	256	(2)
Ocean Currents and Climate	258	(1)
Upwelling	259	(1)
Deep-Ocean Circulation	259	(1)
Waves	260	(2)
Wave Characteristics	261	(1)
Circular Orbital Motion	261	(1)
Waves in the Surf Zone	262	(1)
Beaches and Shoreline Processes	262	(4)
Wave Erosion	263	(1)
Wave Refraction	264	(1)
Longshore Transport	265	(1)
Shoreline Features	266	(2)
Erosional Features	266	(1)
Depositional Features	267	(1)
The Evolving Shore	268	(1)
Stabilizing the Shore	268	(5)
Hard Stabilization	270	(1)
Alternatives to Hard Stabilization	271	(1)
Erosion Problems Along U.S. Coasts	272	(1)
Coastal Classification	273	(1)
Emergent Coasts	273	(1)
Submergent Coasts	273	(1)
Tides	274	(6)
Causes of Tides	274	(1)
Monthly Tidal Cycle	275	(1)
Tidal Patterns	276	(1)
Tidal Currents	276	(1)
The Chapter in Review	277	(1)
Key Terms	278	(1)
Questions for Review	279	(1)
Online Study Guide	279	(1)
UNIT VI THE ATMOSPHERE	280	(100)
Heating the Atmosphere	281	(28)
Focus on Learning	281	(1)
Weather and Climate	282	(1)
Composition of the Atmosphere	283	(2)
Major Components	283	(1)
Variable Components	283	(1)
Ozone Depletion---A Global Issue	284	(1)
Height and Structure of the Atmosphere	285	(1)
Pressure Changes	285	(1)
Temperature Changes	285	(1)
Earth-Sun Relationships	286	(5)
Earth's Motions	287	(1)
Seasons	287	(1)
Earth's Orientation	288	(1)
Solstices and Equinoxes	289	(2)
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer	291	(3)
Conduction	292	(1)
Radiation	292	(1)
Convection	292	(2)
The Fate of Incoming Solar Radiation	294	(2)
Reflection and Scattering	294	(1)
Absorption	295	(1)
Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect	296	(1)
Global Warming	296	(3)
CO2 Levels Are Rising	297	(1)
The Atmosphere's Response	297	(1)
Some Possible Consequences	297	(2)
Temperature Measurement and Data	299	(1)
Why Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature	300	(3)
Land and Water	300	(1)
Altitude	301	(1)
Geographic Position	301	(1)
Cloud Cover and Albedo	302	(1)
World Distribution of Temperature	303	(6)
The Chapter in Review	305	(1)
Key Terms	306	(1)
Questions for Review	306	(1)
Online Study Guide	307	(2)
Clouds and Precipitation	309	(28)
Focus on Learning	309	(1)
Water's Changes of State	310	(2)
Latent Heat	310	(2)
Humidity: Water Vapor in the Air	312	(4)
Saturation	312	(1)
Mixing Ratio	312	(1)
Relative Humidity	312	(3)
Dew-Point Temperature	315	(1)
Measuring Humidity	315	(1)
The Basis of Cloud Formation: Adiabatic Cooling	316	(1)
Fog and Dew vs. Cloud Formation	316	(1)
Adiabatic Temperature Changes	316	(1)
Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation	316	(1)
Processes that Lift Air	316	(3)
Orographic Lifting	317	(1)
Frontal Wedging	317	(1)
Convergence	317	(2)
Localized Convective Lifting	319	(1)
The Weathermaker: Atmospheric Stability	319	(3)
Types of Stability	319	(3)
Stability and Daily Weather	322	(1)
Condensation and Cloud Formation	322	(2)
Cloud Classification	323	(1)
Fog	324	(5)
Fogs Caused by Cooling	325	(3)
Evaporation Fogs	328	(1)
Precipitation	329	(8)
How Precipitation Forms	329	(1)
Forms of Precipitation	329	(2)
Measuring Precipitation	331	(2)
The Chapter in Review	333	(1)
Key Terms	334	(1)
Questions for Review	334	(1)
Online Study Guide	335	(2)
The Atmosphere in Motion	337	(18)
Focus on Learning	337	(1)
Understanding and Measuring Air Pressure	338	(1)
Measuring Air Pressure	339	(1)
Factors Affecting Wind	340	(4)
Pressure Gradient Force	340	(1)
Coriolis Effect	340	(2)
Friction with Earth's Surface	342	(2)
Highs and Lows	344	(2)
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Winds	344	(1)
Weather Generalizations About Highs and Lows	344	(2)
General Circulation of the Atmosphere	346	(3)
Circulation on a Nonrotating Earth	346	(1)
Idealized Global Circulation	347	(1)
Influence of Continents	347	(2)
The Westerlies	349	(1)
Local Winds	349	(2)
Land and Sea	349	(1)
Mountain and Valley Breezes	349	(1)
Chinook and Santa Ana Winds	350	(1)
How Wind Is Measured	351	(4)
The Chapter in Review	352	(1)
Key Terms	352	(1)
Questions for Review	353	(1)
Online Study Guide	353	(2)
Weather Patterns and Severe Weather	355	(25)
Focus on Learning	355	(1)
Air Masses	356	(3)
What Is an Air Mass?	356	(1)
Source Regions	357	(1)
Weather Associated with Air Masses	357	(2)
Fronts	359	(2)
Warm Fronts	361	(1)
Cold Fronts	361	(1)
Stationary Fronts and Occluded Fronts	361	(1)
The Middle-Latitude Cyclone	361	(3)
Idealized Weather of a Middle-Latitude Cyclone	363	(1)
The Role of Airflow Aloft	364	(1)
Thunderstorms	364	(3)
Thunderstorm Occurrence	365	(1)
Stages of Thunderstorm Development	365	(2)
Tornadoes	367	(5)
Tornado Occurrence and Development	367	(3)
Tornado Destruction	370	(1)
Tornado Forecasting	371	(1)
Hurricanes	372	(8)
Profile of a Hurricane	372	(1)
Hurricane Formation and Decay	373	(2)
Hurricane Destruction	375	(2)
The Chapter in Review	377	(1)
Key Terms	378	(1)
Questions for Review	378	(1)
Online Study Guide	379	(1)
UNIT VII EARTH'S PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE	380	(57)
The Nature of the Solar System	381	(34)
Focus on Learning	381	(1)
Ancient Astronomy	382	(2)
Early Greeks	382	(1)
Ptolemy's Model	383	(1)
The Birth of Modern Astronomy	384	(6)
Nicolaus Copernicus	384	(1)
Tycho Brahe	385	(1)
Johannes Kepler	385	(2)
Galileo Galilei	387	(1)
Sir Isaac Newton	388	(2)
The Planets: An Overview	390	(3)
The Interiors of the Planets	391	(1)
The Atmospheres of the Planets	392	(1)
Origin of the Solar System	393	(2)
Earth's Moon	395	(2)
The Lunar Surface	395	(2)
Impact Hypothesis for Moon's Origins	397	(1)
The Planets: A Short Tour	397	(10)
Mercury: Innermost, Hot, and Quick	397	(1)
Venus: Veiled in Clouds	398	(2)
Mars: The Red Planet	400	(2)
Jupiter: Lord of the Heavens	402	(1)
Saturn: The Elegant Planet	403	(2)
Uranus and Neptune: The Twins	405	(1)
Pluto: The Outermost Planet	406	(1)
Minor Members of the Solar System	407	(8)
Asteroids: Microplanets	407	(1)
Comets: Dirty Snowballs	408	(2)
Meteoroids: Visitors to Earth	410	(1)
The Chapter in Review	411	(1)
Key Terms	412	(1)
Questions for Review	412	(1)
Online Study Guide	413	(2)
Beyond the Solar System	415	(22)
Focus on Learning	415	(1)
Properties of Stars	416	(3)
Measuring Distances to the Stars	416	(1)
Stellar Brightness	417	(1)
Stellar Color and Temperature	418	(1)
Binary Stars and Stellar Mass	418	(1)
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram	419	(2)
Interstellar Matter	421	(1)
Stellar Evolution	422	(5)
Star Birth	423	(1)
Protostar Stage	423	(1)
Main-Sequence Stage	424	(1)
Red Giant Stage	424	(1)
Burnout and Death	424	(2)
H-R Diagrams and Stellar Evolution	426	(1)
Stellar Remnants	427	(1)
White Dwarfs	427	(1)
Neutron Stars	427	(1)
Black Holes	428	(1)
The Milky Way Galaxy	428	(1)
Structure of the Milky Way Galaxy	429	(1)
Galaxies	429	(3)
Types of Galaxies	430	(2)
Galactic Clusters	432	(1)
Red Shifts	432	(1)
Expanding Universe	432	(1)
The Big Bang	433	(4)
The Chapter in Review	434	(1)
Key Terms	435	(1)
Questions for Review	435	(1)
Online Study Guide	436	(1)
Appendix A Metric and English Units Compared	437	(1)
Appendix B Mineral Identification Key	438	(2)
Appendix C Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Tables	440	(2)
Appendix D Earth's Grid System	442	(3)
Glossary	445	(10)
Index	455