Frontiers of Life, Four-Volume Set

by Baltimore; Dulbecco; Jacob; Levi-Montalcini

• ISBN13: 9780120773404
• ISBN10: 0120773406
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-10-05
• Publisher: Elsevier Science

Summary

Frontiers of Life addresses fields of biology in terms of their frontiers--that is, the areas that will demand the most work in this new century. Because of their standing, the editors have been able to unite the most prestigious and well-informed authorities to place recent scientific advances into the context of their effects on daily human experiences and expectations. They ask, "What frontiers of the biological sciences will constitute the challenges of the next century?" Their first answer is an understanding of the processes and mechanisms that led to the origin of life. They take this answer as the starting point of the first section of the Encyclopedia. They thus proceed throughout the four volumes. Separating this Encyclopedia form others is its multidisciplinary approach to the "frontiers" theme. While other encyclopedias strive to describe the past and present states of many subjects, Frontiers of Life offers the insights of world-class scientists into their subjects' growth areas. Key Features * Includes Advisory Board with each member a Nobel Laureate * Written by contributors playing leading roles in their fields of expertise * Contains almost 3,000 full color tables and figures, illustrating the 205 articles; color running heads and subtitles within each article make reading easy * Presents biology as an organizing force of life in every article, from the cellular level to the interpersonal

Table of Contents

Preface to the English Edition	xvii
Preface	xxiii
Guide to the Encyclopedia	xxv
Introduction to the Volume	xxvii
PART ONE THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE
Introduction to Part One	3	(2)
James E. Dahlberg
Glauco P. Tocchini-Valentini
SECTION I COSMOLOGY
The Structure of the Universe	5	(22)
Margherita Hack
Information Messengers on the Universe	5	(1)
The Hierarchic Structure of the Universe	6	(1)
Our Galaxy and Its Stellar Population	7	(10)
The First Observations of Extrasolar Planets	17	(1)
Galaxies and Galaxy Clusters	18	(3)
The Origin and Evolution of the Universe	21	(5)
References	26	(1)
Cosmology and the Dark Matter of the Universe	27	(6)
David N. Schramm
Introduction	27	(1)
The Hubble Expansion	27	(1)
The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation	28	(1)
The Abundances of the Light Elements	28	(2)
Neutrino Families	30	(1)
Outstanding Issues	30	(1)
Initial Conditions of the Universe	31	(1)
Conclusion	32	(1)
References	32	(1)
Organic Molecules in the Interstellar Gas	33	(18)
Patrick Thaddeus
Introduction	33	(1)
Cosmic Chemistry Is Organic Chemistry	34	(7)
Distribution of Molecules in Space: Molecular Clouds	41	(3)
Molecule Formation	44	(2)
Molecular Masers	46	(1)
The Diffuse Interstellar Bands	47	(1)
Prospects for the Future	47	(1)
Relation to the Origin of Life	48	(1)
References	48	(3)
SECTION II THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
The Elements	51	(18)
P. W. Atkins
Elements and the Nuclear Atom	51	(4)
Condensation and Fractionation	55	(2)
The Electronic Structures of Atoms	57	(2)
The Periodic Table	59	(8)
Conclusion	67	(1)
References	67	(2)
The Simple and the Complex: Scale Invariance and Self-Organization from Physics to Biology	69	(18)
Luciano Pietronero
The Simple and the Complex	69	(1)
Recent Developments in Statistical Physics	70	(2)
Regular and Irregular Structures: Scale Invariance	72	(1)
Properties of Fractals: Simple but Subtle	72	(2)
The Fractal Universe	74	(2)
Physical Models for Fractal Growth and Self-Organization	76	(2)
The Development of Understanding	78	(2)
From Physics to Biology	80	(1)
Origin of Life and Evolution	81	(3)
Scale Invariance in Physiology	84	(2)
References	86	(1)
Particles, Fields, and Observers	87	(20)
B. J. Hiley
Introduction	87	(1)
The Quantum World	88	(3)
Wigner's Contribution	91	(1)
Other Attempts to Solve the Collapse Problem	92	(1)
Collapse without Observers	93	(1)
The Bohm Interpretation	94	(1)
The Properties Implied by the Quantum Potential	95	(1)
Nonlocality in Quantum Mechanics	96	(3)
Toward the Removal of the Cut between Mind and Matter	99	(1)
New Concepts	100	(1)
Psychophysical Implications: A New Order	101	(2)
The New Order and Mind	103	(2)
References	105	(2)
Artificial Life	107	(18)
Thomas R. Ray
Synthetic Evolution	107	(2)
Digital Evolution: Giving Up Control	109	(4)
Tierra	113	(3)
Comparing the Systems	116	(1)
Evolvability and the Language	117	(1)
Evolving the Language	117	(1)
A Changing Relationship to Evolution	118	(1)
Complexity Increase	118	(1)
Provoking a Spontaneous Complexity Increase	119	(2)
Managing the Evolution of Complexity Increase	121	(1)
Experimental Evolution	122	(1)
Returning to Our Roots	122	(1)
References	123	(2)
Why Is the Universe Mathematical?	125	(14)
John D. Barrow
Introduction	125	(1)
Mathematics: A Human Invention?	126	(1)
Formalism	127	(4)
Platonism	131	(1)
Constructivism	132	(1)
Computability	133	(1)
Paradigms	134	(1)
Information Compression in Numbers and Nature	134	(3)
The Inevitability of Mathematics	137	(1)
References	138	(1)
SECTION III THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
The Origin of Life: Planetary Environments	139	(14)
Christopher F. Chyba
Gene D. McDonald
Timescales for the Terrestrial Origin of Life	139	(4)
Impact Delivery of Biogenic Elements	143	(1)
Prebiotic Organic Chemistry	144	(4)
Extraterrestrial Life in the Solar System	148	(2)
References	150	(3)
The Origin of Life: Energy	153	(16)
Christian de Duve
Introduction	153	(1)
Outlines of Bioenergetics	154	(4)
The Source of Prebiotic Electrons	158	(2)
Prebiotic Condensing Agents	160	(3)
Prebiotic Coupling Mechanisms	163	(2)
The Acquisition of Autotrophy	165	(2)
Conclusions	167	(1)
References	167	(2)
The Origins of Life: Clays	169	(24)
A. G. Cairns-Smith
Introduction	169	(1)
Formation and Structure of Clay Minerals	170	(4)
The Conservation Option	174	(7)
The Radical Option	181	(5)
Frontier Territory	186	(4)
References	190	(3)
Environmental Constraints on the Origin of Life	193	(8)
James F. Kasting
Introduction	193	(1)
Climate of the Early Earth	194	(1)
Effects of Large Bolide Impacts	195	(1)
Chemical Composition of the Early Atmosphere and the Problem of Prebiotic Organic Synthesis	195	(2)
Submarine Volcanism as a Source of Methane	197	(1)
Mantle Redox Evolution and the Siderophile Problem	198	(1)
Summary	199	(1)
References	199	(2)
Earliest Life on Earth: The Geological Record	201	(14)
M. R. Walter
Introduction	201	(1)
Nature of the Evidence	202	(2)
Sampling the Environment	204	(3)
Archean Paleobiology	207	(4)
Conclusions	211	(1)
References	211	(4)
SECTION IV SELECTION AND EVOLUTION
Selection at Work in Biological Evolution	215	(16)
Olivia P. Judson
Introduction	215	(1)
Interested Genes	216	(1)
Still Evolving	217	(1)
Practical Evolution	218	(1)
A Parasitic Opportunity	218	(1)
Xeno's Paradox	219	(1)
The Seven Wonders of the Genome	220	(5)
The Adapted Human	225	(3)
Conclusion	228	(1)
References	228	(3)
The Involvement of Genetic and Environmental Factors in the Evolution of Bacteria	231	(16)
Werner Arber
Introduction	231	(1)
The Roles of Mutation, Selection, and Isolation in Biological Evolution	231	(1)
Background Knowledge and Relevant Definitions	232	(2)
Hypothesis on the Existence of Evolutionary Genes in the Bacterial Genome	234	(1)
Natural Strategies Involved in the Provision of Genetic Plasticity	235	(1)
Genes and Gene Systems Specifically Involved in the Generation and Control of Genetic Plasticity	236	(6)
Comparison of Qualitative Differences between Various Natural	242	(1)
Mutagenesis Strategies	242	(1)
The Evolutionary Tree as a Network	242	(2)
Features of Evolutionary Genes and Their Products	244	(1)
Generalization and Philosophical Implications of the Existence of Evolutionary Genes	244	(1)
References	245	(2)
Evolution in the Test Tube	247	(18)
Susanne Brakmann
Manfred Eigen
Evolution Means Optimization of Function	247	(4)
Evolution Can Be Materialized in Test Tubes	251	(9)
Evolutionary Biotechnology: Perspectives	260	(1)
References	261	(4)
SECTION V THE MOLECULES OF INHERITANCE: DNA AND RNA
The RNA World	265	(12)
Nancy Maizels
Alan M. Weiner
The RNA World	265	(1)
A Simple Scheme for Molecular Evolution	266	(1)
Catalytic RNA	266	(1)
Creating a Virtual Past: A ``Riboreplicase'' Made of RNA Copies RNA into RNA	267	(1)
Modern Cells as Living Archives	267	(1)
Molecular Fossils	268	(1)
Cooking up a Primordial Soup	268	(1)
Was the First Replicating Molecule Made of RNA or Not-Quite RNA?	269	(1)
Special Properties of RNA Enable It to Play Two Very Different Roles	269	(2)
What Sorts of Organisms Inhabited the RNA World?	271	(1)
How Did We Get from the RNA World to Our DNA World: The Evolution of DNA Genomes	272	(3)
The Evolution of Protein Synthesis	275	(1)
The Genetic Code: The Last Great Frontier	275	(1)
References	276	(1)
Why DNA?	277	(16)
Maxim Frank-Kamenetskii
DNA Is Genetic Material in Contemporary Organisms	277	(4)
RNA Is Still Very Important	281	(2)
How Cells Deal with DNA Topology	283	(3)
DNA Can Adopt a Variety of Structures	286	(4)
References	290	(3)
SECTION VI HUMAN ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
The Evolution of the Genus Homo: Taxonomic, Phylogenetic, and Behavioral Issues	293	(18)
Daniel E. Lieberman
Steven E. Churchill
Introduction	293	(1)
Controversies	293	(1)
Taxonomy	294	(7)
Phylogeny	301	(3)
Behavioral Reconstructions	304	(3)
Conclusion	307	(1)
References	307	(4)
Human Origins	311	(18)
Donald C. Johanson
The Hominidae and Species	311	(1)
Australopithecines and Miocene Beginnings	312	(2)
South African Australopithecines	314	(2)
The Science of Paleoanthropology	316	(1)
East African Australopithecines	317	(6)
Origins of the Genus Homo	323	(2)
Conclusions	325	(1)
References	325	(4)
SECTION VII CONSTRUCTION OF THE ORGANISM
The Origin and Processing of Biological Information	329	(18)
Peter Schuster
The Concept of Information	329	(2)
Information and Biology	331	(3)
Evolutionary Dynamics	334	(2)
Darwin's Principle of Evolution	336	(1)
Genotype-Phenotype Mapping and Neutral Evolution	337	(3)
Modular Design and Innovation in Biology	340	(4)
A Current View of Biological Information and Its Perspective	344	(1)
References	345	(2)
The Logic of the Construction of an Organism	347	(14)
Edward T. Stuart
Peter Gruss
Evolution and Construction	347	(1)
Diversity in Nervous Systems	348	(1)
The Isocortex Is Increasingly Complex but Highly Specified in Organisms	348	(1)
The Molecular Basis of Constructing an Organism	349	(1)
PAX Genes and the Construction of the Organism	349	(1)
PAX Proteins Are Regulators of Transcription	350	(1)
PAX Genes Are Involved in Embryonic Development	350	(2)
The Consequences of Disruption of Logic	352	(1)
PAX Genes and Cancer	353	(1)
HOX Genes and the Specification of the Body Plan	354	(1)
Homeoboxes and Cancer	355	(1)
The Logic of the Construction of Organisms	356	(1)
References	356	(5)
The Genetic Logic of Metazoan Morphogenesis: The Cambrian Explosion	361	(18)
Antonio Garcia Bellido
Introduction	361	(1)
Modularity of the Genetic Elements	362	(4)
Mechanisms in Cell Behavior	366	(1)
Modular Iteration of Cellular Territories and Cell Types	367	(7)
Genetic Bases for Evolutionary Variation	374	(2)
Are There Invariant Principles at the Root of Morphogenesis?	376	(1)
References	377	(2)
The Eye: Paleontology	379	(24)
Riccardo Levi-Setti
Euan N. K. Clarkson
Gabor Horvath
Vision and the Eye	379	(3)
The Fossil Record of Trilobite Eyes	382	(6)
Vision Optimization in Trilobite Eyes	388	(4)
Beyond Trilobites: Other Fossil Visual Systems	392	(2)
References	394	(5)
PART TWO GENETIC LANGUAGE
Introduction to Part Two	399	(4)
Francesco Amaldi
Giuseppe Attardi
SECTION I ORGANIZATION OF LANGUAGE AND GENETIC INFORMATION
Maintenance of Genetic Information	403	(10)
Silvia Tornaletti
Philip C. Hanawalt
Introduction	403	(1)
Endogenous Sources of DNA Damage	404	(1)
Mismatch Repair	405	(1)
Base Excision Repair	406	(2)
UV Damage	408	(1)
Repair of UV Photoproducts	409	(1)
Intragenomic DNA Repair Heterogeneity	410	(2)
Relationships between DNA Repair and Human Hereditary Diseases	412	(1)
References	412	(1)
Telomeres and Chromosome Stability	413	(8)
Calvin B. Harley
Telomeres and Chromosome Structure	413	(1)
Telomere Sequence and Telomere-Binding Proteins	413	(1)
The End-Replication Problem and Telomerase	414	(1)
Telomerase Structure and Function	415	(1)
Measuring Telomere Length and Telomerase Activity	416	(2)
Telomeres and Telomerase in Cells and Tissues	418	(1)
The Telomere Hypothesis of Cell Aging and Immortalization	418	(1)
Perspective: Telomeres and Human Disease	419	(1)
References	419	(2)
Mitochondrial Genetic Systems of Yeasts and Humans	421	(16)
Ronald A. Butow
R. Sanders Williams
The Organization, Expression, and Transmission of Mitochondrial Genes in the Yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae	421	(4)
RNA Stability	425	(2)
The Human Mitochondrial Genome	427	(8)
References	435	(2)
The Plastid Genetic System	437	(20)
Pal Maliga
Plastid Evolution	437	(1)
Plastid Differentiation	438	(1)
Plastid Genome	439	(1)
Replication of Plastid DNA	440	(1)
Plastid Division	440	(2)
Plastid Transmission	442	(1)
Plastid Genes	442	(3)
Control Points of Plastid Gene Expression	445	(1)
Plastid Gene Transcription	445	(2)
Regulation of mRNA Translation	447	(3)
Processing of Transcripts for Protein-Coding Genes	450	(1)
mRNA Stability and Regulation of mRNA Turnover	450	(1)
RNA Editing	451	(1)
Plastid Transformation	452	(1)
Biotechnological Applications	453	(1)
References	454	(3)
SECTION II MECHANISMS OF GENETIC EXPRESSION
Control of Gene Expression by Chromatin Structure	457	(16)
Nicoletta Landsberger
Alan P. Wolffe
The Natural Template for Transcription Is Packaged by both Histone and Nonhistone Proteins into Nucleosomes and Higher Order Chromatin Structures	457	(2)
Nucleosome Positioning and Modification: Chromatin Structures That Potentiate Transcription	459	(4)
Chromatin Disruption: The Role of Macromolecular Machines in Remodeling Chromatin	463	(1)
The Functional Roles of Long-Range Chromatin Organization	464	(6)
References	470	(3)
Genome Imprinting	473	(12)
M. Azim Surani
Parental Genomes Are Functionally Nonequivalent in Mammals	473	(1)
Identification of Imprinted Chromosomal Regions and Genes	473	(1)
Identification of Imprinted Genes	474	(1)
Developmental Role of Imprinted Genes	475	(1)
Fate of Uniparental Cells in Chimeras	476	(1)
Role of Individual Imprinted Genes	477	(1)
Mechanism of Imprinting	478	(1)
Imprinted Genes Have Differentially Methylated Regions	479	(1)
Characteristics of Imprinted Genes and Their Organization in Domains	480	(1)
Chromosomal Domains with Clusters of Imprinted Genes	481	(2)
Conclusions	483	(1)
References	483	(2)
RNA Splicing Machineries	485	(16)
John Abelson
Chang Hee Kim
Introduction	485	(1)
Splicing and Autosplicing	486	(2)
The Spliceosome	488	(2)
Spliceosome Assembly	490	(3)
RNA Interactions in Spliceosome Assembly: The Stepwise Assembly of the Active Center	493	(2)
The AT-AC Introns: The Exception Proves the Rule	495	(1)
The Role of Proteins in Splicing	495	(3)
References	498	(3)
RNA Editing	501	(16)
Larry Simpson
The Discovery of RNA Editing Brought into Question the Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics	501	(1)
A Personal History of the Investigation of RNA Editing in Trypanosomes	502	(11)
Conclusions	513	(1)
References	513	(4)
Ribosomes and Translation of Genetic Code	517	(28)
Harry F. Noller
Introduction	517	(1)
Ribosome Structure	518	(9)
Architecture of Ribosomes and Their Subunits	527	(3)
A Molecular Model for the 30S Subunit	530	(1)
The Mechanism of Translation	531	(1)
Selection of tRNA by Ribosomes	532	(2)
States of tRNA-Ribosome Interaction during Elongation and Translocation	534	(3)
Peptidyl Transferase	537	(2)
Conclusions	539	(1)
References	540	(5)
SECTION III PROGRAMS OF GENETIC EXPRESSION
Master Control Genes: Their Organization, Function, and Regulation	545	(10)
E. B. Lewis
Introduction	545	(1)
Early History	545	(2)
Genetics of the BX-C	547	(1)
Molecular Studies of the BX-C and the ANT-C	548	(3)
Trans Regulation of the BX-C	551	(1)
Transvection	551	(1)
Cis Regulation of the BX-C	552	(1)
Conclusions	553	(1)
References	553	(2)
Genetic Analysis of Life Span and Aging	555	(20)
Thomas E. Johnson
Christopher D. Link
Introduction	555	(1)
Fungal Senescence	556	(2)
Genetics of Aging in Caenorhabditis elegans	558	(2)
Genetic Analysis of Aging in Drosophila	560	(2)
Genetic Analysis of Life Span in Mammals	562	(1)
Genetic Analysis of Demographics in Invertebrates	563	(1)
Genetics of Aging in Humans	563	(5)
Molecular Genetic Changes Specifying Aging	568	(2)
References	570	(5)
Biochemical and Molecular Mechanisms in Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death)	575	(20)
David J. McConkey
Sten Orrenius
The Concept of Apoptosis	575	(1)
Morphology of Apoptosis	576	(1)
Genetic Regulation of Apoptosis	576	(2)
Biochemistry of Apoptosis	578	(8)
Molecular Regulation of Apoptosis	586	(5)
Viral Regulation of Apoptosis	591	(2)
Future Directions	593	(1)
References	593	(2)
Genetics of Behavior	595	(24)
Ralph J. Greenspan
Introduction	595	(1)
Experimentally Induced Mutation vs Natural Genetic Variation	596	(12)
Natural Genetic Variation in Behavior	608	(4)
How Specifically Do Genes Affect Behavior?	612	(2)
Application to Humans	614	(1)
Future Prospects	615	(1)
References	615	(4)
SECTION IV GENES AND EVOLUTION
The Modular Evolution of Proteins	619	(12)
Russel F. Doolittle
Some History	619	(2)
Structure and Survival Value	621	(3)
Evolutionary Impact of Shuffled Domains	624	(3)
Domain Shuffling in Modern Times: Vertebrate Blood Coagulation	627	(1)
Domainal Shuffling in Ancient Times: Glycolytic Enzymes	628	(1)
Summary	628	(1)
References	628	(3)
Genetics and Human Evolution	631	(20)
Alberto Piazza
Introduction	631	(1)
Evolution and Geographical Distribution of Human Genes	632	(3)
Human Evolution Is ``Punctuated'' by Demic Expansions	635	(1)
Expansions in the Paleolithic	636	(1)
Neolithic and Post-Neolithic Expansions	637	(4)
Biological Evolution of Man and Genetic and Cultural Coevolution	641	(2)
Genetics and Human Evolution: An Update	643	(2)
Origin of Anatomically Modern Humans	645	(1)
Demic Expansions	646	(1)
Coevolution of Genes and Languages	647	(1)
References	648	(3)
Ancient DNA	651	(18)
George O. Poinar, Jr.
Introduction	651	(1)
Concerns in Ancient DNA Research	652	(4)
Studies with Extinct Vertebrates	656	(3)
Ancient DNA from 1-Million-Year-Old Vertebrates?	659	(1)
Human and Archeological Remains	660	(2)
Fossils in Copal and Amber	662	(3)
Ancient DNA from Plant Remains	665	(1)
Future Trends	666	(1)
Summary	666	(1)
References	667	(2)
SECTION V MANIPULATIONS AND GENETIC ERRORS
The Genetic Basis of Cancer	669	(20)
Joseph F. Costello
H.-J. Su Huang
Webster K. Cavenee
Evidence That Cancer Is a Genetic Disease	669	(1)
Retinoblastoma: A Prototypic Hereditary and Sporadic Cancer	670	(1)
Other Tumor Suppressor Genes	671	(6)
Oncogenes	677	(3)
The Malignant Progression of Initiated Premalignant Cells	680	(4)
The Effects of Mutations on Phenotype	684	(1)
The Practical Applications of Cancer Genetics	685	(1)
Conclusion	686	(1)
References	686	(3)
Plant Transformation and Its Application to Agricultural Biotechnology	689
Maarten J. Chrispeels
Uwe Sonnewald
Plant Transformation	689	(3)
Genes Can Be Upregulated and Downregulated	692	(1)
Transgenic Plants Produce Novel Starches, Oils, Plastics, Enzymes, and Pharmaceuticals	693	(5)
Manipulation of Agronomic and Postharvest Properties	698	(3)
Transgenic Plants Show Improved Resistance to Physical Stresses	701	(1)
Genetically Engineered Crops Are Resistant to Pests and Pathogens	702	(5)
Genetic Engineering Helps Plants Cope with Chemicals in Their Environment	707	(3)
Genetic Engineering Will Be an Aid to Plant Breeding	710	(2)
Regulatory and Societal Aspects of Plant Genetic Engineering	712	(1)
References	713
Introduction to the Volume	xvii
PART ONE CELLS AND CELL COMMUNITIES
Introduction to Part One	3	(2)
Nica Borgese
Francesco Clementi
Pietro De Camilli
SECTION I THE CELL CONSTRUCTION
The Folding of Proteins Inside the Cell	5	(20)
Peter J. T. Dekker
Wolfgang Voos
Nikolaus Pfanner
Joachim Rassow
Introduction	5	(1)
The in Vitro Protein Folding Problem	6	(3)
The in Vivo Protein Folding Problem	9	(1)
Enzymes Involved in Protein Folding	9	(2)
Molecular Chaperones	11	(2)
The Hsp70 Family	13	(5)
Chaperonins	18	(4)
References	22	(3)
Regulation of Intracellular Protein Degradation in Eukaryotes	25	(18)
Mark Hochstrasser
Introduction	25	(1)
Overview of the Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway	26	(1)
Protein Ubiquitination	26	(1)
Ubiquitin-Conjugating Enzyme (E2)	27	(5)
Protein Deubiquitination	32	(2)
The 20S and 26S Proteasomes	34	(3)
New Cellular Functions for Ubiquitin	37	(3)
Conclusions and Future Directions	40	(1)
References	40	(3)
Traffic of Proteins and Compartmentalization of Eukaryotic Cells	43	(12)
Kai Simons
Marino Zerial
The Organism Is a Life Cycle	43	(1)
The Cell Is Compartmentalized	44	(1)
Proteins Must Find Their Compartment in the Cell	45	(2)
Viruses as Bloodhounds	47	(2)
Moving Proteins from One Compartment to Another	49	(2)
Not All Cells Are the Same	51	(3)
References	54	(1)
The Molecular basis of Biological Movements	55	(20)
Chris M. Coppin
Daniel W. Pierce
Ronald D. Vale
Introduction	55	(1)
The Bacterial Flagellar Motor	56	(2)
The Filament-Based Motors	58	(10)
Polymerases and Helicases	68	(2)
Polymerization-Powered Processes	70	(2)
Conclusion	72	(1)
References	72	(3)
Cell Form as an Essential Determinant of Cell Function	75	(26)
Eric Karsenti
Shape and Function	75	(1)
The Diversity of Cell Forms and Functions	76	(3)
Diversification of Cell Forms and Functions during Development	79	(3)
The Role of Cytoskeletal Components and External Cues in Generating Cell Form	82	(14)
From Form to Function: The Duality of the Cytoskeleton	96	(2)
Conclusion and General Principles	98	(1)
References	98	(3)
SECTION II COMMUNICATION AMONG CELLS
Intercellular Communication Through the Secretion of Hormones and Neurotransmitters	101	(14)
Flavia Valtorta
Characteristics of the Exocytotic Pathway	101	(2)
Constitutive and Regulated Secretion	103	(1)
Characteristics of Neurosecretion	104	(1)
The Spatial and Temporal Accuracy of Neurotransmitter Release	104	(2)
Biogenesis of Synaptic Vesicles	106	(1)
Loading Neurotransmitter into Synaptic Vesicles	107	(1)
Exocytosis of Synaptic Vesicles: Preparatory Stages	107	(1)
Exocytosis of Synaptic Vesicles: Final Stages	108	(1)
Endocytosis of Synaptic Vesicles	109	(2)
Secretion of Neuropeptides and Hormones	111	(1)
Plasticity of Secretory Mechanisms	112	(1)
Conclusions	113	(1)
References	113	(2)
How Cells Respond to Chemical Mediators: The Electrical Signals	115	(20)
Dario DiFrancesco
Introduction	115	(1)
The Electrical Potentials	116	(2)
Electrical Signals and Intracellular Communications	118	(3)
Receptors, Second Messengers and Ionic Channels	121	(8)
Electrical Signals from Molecules to Therapy: Future Directions	129	(4)
References	133	(2)
How Cells Respond to Chemical Mediators: Second Messengers	135	(16)
Lucia Vallar
General Response Mechanisms to Chemical Mediators	135	(1)
G Protein-Coupled Receptors	136	(1)
The G Protein Family	137	(4)
The Adenylate Cyclase Enzyme and the Second Messenger cAMP	141	(3)
The Signaling System of Phospholipase C	144	(2)
The Role of Ca2+ as an Intracellular Messenger	146	(3)
cGMP as a Second Messenger in the Retinal Response to Light	149	(1)
Integration of Intracellular Signals	150	(1)
References	150	(1)
How Cells Respond to Chemical Mediators: The Response to Trophic Factors	151	(16)
Attanasio Pandiella
The Response to Trophic Factors Depends on the Target Tissue	151	(1)
Many Growth Factors Share Structural Modules	152	(1)
Growth Factors Containing an EGF Unit Are Synthesized with a Transmembrane Anchor	153	(1)
The Release of Transmembrane Growth Factors Is a Regulated Process	154	(1)
Transmembrane Growth Factors Are Biologically Active and May Act as Receptors	155	(1)
Soluble Stem Cell Factor Does Not Replace the Membrane-Bound Factor in Mouse Development	156	(1)
Tumor Necrosis Factor Is a Membrane-Anchored Growth Factor with Killing Properties	157	(1)
A Growth Factor with Seven Membrane-Spanning Domains Participates in Drosophila Eye Development	157	(1)
The Receptors for Trophic Factors Have Kinase Activity	157	(2)
Signaling Molecules Contain Structural Modules That Allow Interaction with Receptor Tyrosine Kinases and Other Proteins	159	(1)
Several Pathways Participate in Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Signaling	159	(3)
The Neurotrophins and Their Receptors Are Essential in the Maintenance and Development of the Nervous System	162	(2)
The TGF-(Factors Participate in Growth Arrest, Morphogenesis and Remodeling of Tissues	164	(1)
Biological Responses to TGF-(Factors	165	(1)
References	166	(1)
Flourescent and Chemiluminescent Molecules for Studying Dynamic Processes in Living Cells	167	(16)
Rosario Rizzuto
Introduction	167	(1)
Flurescent Ca2+ Indicators	168	(1)
The New Generation of Fluorescent Indicators	168	(3)
The Protein Probes: Recombinant Aequorin, a Specifically Targeted Ca2+ Probe	171	(1)
The Measurement of Ca2+ Concentration in Various Intracellular Compartments Using Aequorin Chimeras	172	(3)
The Protein Probes: Green Fluorescent Protein	175	(1)
GFP Mutants	176	(2)
Applications	178	(2)
References	180	(3)
SECTION III NORMAL AND ALTERED CELL HOMEOSTASIS
The Cell Division Cycle: From Small Modifications to Diastic Changes	183	(12)
Giulio Francesco Draetta
The Eukaryotic Cell Division Cycle	183	(2)
Biochemical Cell Cycle Control Mechanisms	185	(5)
Cell Division in Multicellular Organisms	190	(3)
References	193	(2)
Apoptosis: A Special Cell Death Program	195	(12)
Thomas G. Cotter
Introduction	195	(1)
Apoptosis	195	(2)
Cell Death in Development	197	(1)
Caenorhabditis elegans and Apoptosis	197	(1)
Cell Stress and Apoptosis	197	(1)
Biological Features of Apoptosis	198	(1)
Genes and Apoptosis	199	(2)
Proteolytic Enzymes and Apoptosis	201	(1)
Cell Death in the Immune System	202	(1)
Cell Death in the Nervous System	203	(1)
Prospects for Apoptosis-Based Therapies	204	(1)
References	204	(3)
When Regulation Fails: How Cancer Arises	207	(14)
Paolo M. Comoglio
Cancer Derives from an Accumulation of Genetic besions	207	(2)
Oncogenes Stimulate Cell Proliferation	209	(2)
Oncosupressors Inhibit Cell Growth	211	(2)
How Cancer Genes Break Down	213	(1)
Transformation, Cell Cycle and Apoptosis	214	(2)
Invasion and Metastasis	216	(1)
Toward Neoplastic Cell Defeat	217	(1)
References	218	(3)
SECTION IV FORMATION OF ORGANS AND TISSUES
Adhesion and Recognition between Cells and the Organization of Tissue and Organs	221	(14)
Guido Tarone
Introduction	221	(1)
The Discovery of Adhesive Receptors	221	(3)
The Extracellular Matrix	224	(2)
Integrins and Cell-Matrix Interaction	226	(6)
Conclusion	232	(1)
References	232	(3)
Barriers between the Organism and the Environment	235	(24)
Roberto Bruzzone
Paolo Meda
Introduction	235	(1)
Cell-Cell Adhesion Molecules Belong to Two Classes	236	(2)
Epithelial Cells Are Joined by Several Types of Junctions with Distinct Functional Tasks	238	(3)
Adherens Junctions and Desmosomes Anchor Plasma Membranes	241	(2)
Gap Junctions Are Clusters of Intercellular Channels	243	(2)
Gap Junction Channels Participate in the Elaboration of an Intercellular Language	245	(1)
Cell-Matrix Adhesion Is Responsible for the Functional Integrity of Epithelia	246	(3)
Cell-Cell and Cell-Matrix Adhesion Complexes Provide a Dynamic Signaling System	249	(2)
Adhesion Systems and Human Diseases	251	(6)
Conclusions	257	(1)
References	257	(2)
The Genes That Control Development	259	(22)
Edoardo Boncinelli
Development and Its Various Phases	259	(2)
The Biology of Development	261	(2)
Genes and Development	263	(2)
Genes That Control the Development of the Fruit Fly: A Historical Outline	265	(1)
General Background	266	(2)
Maternal Genes of the Anteroposterior Axis	268	(1)
The Segmentation Genes	269	(2)
The True Homeotic Genes	271	(3)
The Homeodomain and Its Preservation	274	(1)
The Hox Genes	274	(4)
Other Homeogenes	278	(1)
References	279	(2)
Cell Signalling and Developmental Patterning in the Insect Retina	281	(32)
Mark E. Fortini
An Eye for an Eye: Developmental Biology and the Insect Retina	281	(2)
Structure and Origins of the Drosophila Compound Eye	283	(2)
Long-Range Diffusable Factors Drive the Anterior Progression of the Morphogenetic Furrow	285	(6)
Short-Range Diffusable Signals and Local Interactions Establish the Evenly Spaced Ommatidial Array	291	(3)
Local Inductive Events between Neighboring Cells Assemble Ommatidia around the R8 Founder Cells	294	(8)
Conclusion	302	(7)
PART TWO THE IMMUNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Introduction to Part Two	309	(4)
Antonio Lanzavecchia
Bernard Malissen
Roberto Sitia
SECTION I IMMUNOLOGICAL THOUGHT
Conceptual Milestones in Immunology	313	(12)
Benvenuto Pernis
Introduction	313	(1)
Serology in the Late 1940s	314	(1)
Somatic Selection in the Production of Antibodies	314	(2)
Immunochemistry after Clonal Selection	316	(1)
Cellular Immunology: The Cell That Produces Immunoglobulins	317	(1)
Cellular Immunology: T Cells	318	(1)
Histocompatibility Molecules	318	(1)
The Accessory Receptors	319	(1)
Genes of Clonotypic Receptors	320	(1)
The Cytokines	321	(1)
Natural Killer Cells	322	(1)
The Growth of Methodology and the Future of Immunology	323	(1)
References	324	(1)
Lymphocyte Selection By Antigen	325	(14)
Gustav J.V.Nossal
The Nature of Bodily Defense	325	(1)
The Antibody Problem: How to Create Infinite Recognition Capability	326	(1)
Selective Theories of Antibody Formation	326	(2)
The Cellular Basis of Antibody Formation	328	(1)
Proof of Clonal Selection	329	(1)
Interacting Cells in Immune Responses	329	(2)
The Controversial Question of T Cell Subsets	331	(1)
The Question of B Cell Subsets	332	(1)
Dual Pathway of in Vivo B Cell Selection	332	(2)
Negative Selection of Lymphocytes by Antigen	334	(1)
Tolerance within the Secondary B Cell Repertoire	335	(1)
T Cell Tolerance for Antigens Not Present in the Thymus	336	(1)
Conclusions	336	(1)
References	336	(3)
SECTION II MOLECULES OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Lymphocyte Development	339	(18)
Fritz Melchers
All Lymphocytes Originate from Pluripotent Hematopoietic Stem Cells	339	(1)
The Compartments of the Immune System	340	(1)
Embryonic Development	340	(2)
Waves of Embryonic and Neonatal Lymphocyte Development	342	(1)
Early T Cell Development	342	(3)
Early B Cell Development	345	(1)
Lymphoid Development in Vitro	345	(1)
Commitment to the Lineages of TCR + and TCR+ T Cells and Ig+ B Cells	346	(1)
Thymus: The Primary Lymphoid Organ for T Cell Development	346	(1)
Bone Marrow: The Primary Lymphoid Organ for T Cell Development	346	(2)
Ordered Rearrangements of the Ig and TCR Alleles	348	(1)
The Surrogate L and Chains	349	(1)
V to DJ Rearrangements: The Formation of Prelymphocyte Receptor	350	(1)
Do Prelymphocyte Receptors Secure Isotype and Allelic Exclusion	351	(1)
Rearrangements of IgL and TCR Chain Gene Loci: The Generation of Immature slgM+ or TCR+ Lymphocytes	351	(1)
Secondary Rearrangements in IgL and TCR Loci	352	(1)
Lymphocyte Development without Ig and TCR Expression	352	(1)
Arrest of Differentiation and Death of Autoreactive Immature Lymphocytes	352	(1)
Antigen Presentation to Immature T Cells in the Thymus	353	(1)
Positive Selection of Immature T Cells in the Thymus	353	(1)
Positive Selection of Immature B Cells	354	(1)
References	354	(3)
Structural Basis of Antigen Recognition by Immune System Receptors	357	(10)
Roy A. Mariuzza
Introduction	357	(1)
Three-Dimensional Structure of Antigen-Antibody Complexes	357	(2)
Three-Dimensional Structure of TCR-Peptide/MHC Complexes	359	(3)
Three-Dimensional Structure of TCR-Superantigen Complexes	362	(2)
References	364	(3)
The Generation of Diversity	367	(16)
Cristina Rada
Introduction	367	(1)
Diversity of the Primary Repertoire	368	(7)
Initiation of T Cell-Dependant Immune Responses: The Formation of the Germinal Centers	375	(2)
Somatic Hypermutation	377	(5)
References	382	(1)
Immunological Memory	383	(10)
Jonathan Sprent
David F. Tough
Introduction	383	(3)
The Generation of Memory Cells	386	(3)
Surface Phenotype of Memory Cells	389	(1)
Specificity and Function of Memory Cells	389	(1)
Factors Influencing the Survival of Memory Cells	390	(1)
Conclusions	391	(1)
References	392	(1)
SECTION III ANTIGEN PRESENTATION AND LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION
Specificity, Sensitivity and Flexibility of T Cell Antigen Recognition	393	(12)
Antonio Lanzavecchia
The Remarkable Efficiency, Specificity and Flexibility of T Cell Antigen Recognition	393	(1)
MHC Molecules Are Disposable Receptors for Peptides	394	(1)
Specialized Mechanisms of Antigen Capture Determine the Relative Efficiency of Different APCs	395	(1)
Dendritic Cell Maturation Optimizes Presentation of Infectious Antigens on MHC Molecules	395	(3)
High-Sensitivity, Low-Affinity Paradox of TCR Antigen Recognition	398	(1)
Sustained Signaling by Serial TCR Triggering	398	(1)
From TCR Triggering to T Cell Activation	399	(2)
A Kinetic View of Antigen Presentation and T Cell Activation	401	(1)
References	402	(3)
The Cell Biology of Antigen Presentation	405	(20)
Elena A. Armandola
Harald Kropshofer
Anne B. Vogt
Gunter J. Hammerling
Introduction	405	(2)
The MHC	407	(1)
Structure of MHC Molecules	408	(2)
Structure of MHC-Associated Peptides	410	(1)
MHC Class I Pathway of Antigen Presentation	411	(2)
The MHC Class II pathway of Antigen Presentation	413	(8)
Strategies Devised by Pathogens to Evade Immune Recognition	421	(1)
References	422	(3)
Antigen Presentation in Vivo	425	(26)
Ralph M. Steinman
Gerold Schuler
Kayo Inaba
Introduction: Distintions between in Vitro and in Vivo Analyses of Antigen Presentation	425	(1)
Primary Immune Responses Typically Begin in Lymphoid Organs That Drain the Site of Antigen Deposition	426	(2)
The Microscopic Anatomy of Peripheral Lymphoid Organs	428	(2)
Generation of Primary T cell Responses in Vitro	430	(3)
The Potency of Dendritic Cells as APCs in Vitro: Some Underlying Mechanisms	433	(3)
Three Cellular Pathways and Subcellular Fates for Antigen in Vivo	436	(1)
Dendritic Cells are Nature's Adjuvent, Able to Prime CD4 Helpers and CD8 Killers in Vivo	437	(2)
Dendritic Cells Traffic via the Afferent Lymph or Bloodstream to the T Cell Areas of Draining Lymphoid Tissues	439	(1)
The Onset of T Cell-Dependant Immunity in Vivo: Maturation and Migration of Dendritic Cells	440	(2)
Localization of Responding T Cells in Vivo	442	(1)
Alterations of T Cell Immunity during Memory	443	(1)
Mucosal Immunity in Vivo: Positive and Negative Regulation at the Level of DCs	444	(1)
Can Immune Responses Be Manipulated Clinically at the Level of APCs?	445	(2)
References	447	(4)
Signal Transduction and Cell Fate Decisions in the Immune System	451	(12)
John C. Cambier
Idan Tamir
Introduction	451	(1)
The Molecular Basis of Antigen Receptor Signal Transduction	452	(4)
Accessory Function of CD 19 in BCR Signaling	456	(1)
The Type 2 Complement Receptor-An Amplifying BCR Coreceptor	457	(1)
CD45 Is Required for Participation of Src Family Kinases in BCR Signaling	458	(1)
FcyRRIIBI, an Inhibitory BCR Coreceptor	459	(1)
Cd22 Attenuation of BCR Signal Transduction	460	(1)
References	461	(2)
SECTION IV CYTOKINES AND LEUKOCYTE TRAFFIC
Molecular Regulation of Leukocyte Recruitment	463	(14)
Alberto Mantovani
Introduction	463	(1)
Primary Cytokines: The IL-I System	464	(4)
Secondary Mediators: Adhesion Molecules on Leukocytes and Vascular Endothelium	468	(4)
Secondary Mediators: Chemokines	472	(4)
Concluding Remarks	476	(1)
References	476	(1)
Nonclassical Mechanisms of Secretion in the Physiopathology of the Immune System	477	(12)
M. Raffaella Zocchi
Anna Rubartelli
Introduction	477	(3)
The Secretion of Leaderless Proteins	480	(3)
Interleukin - I Bβ	483	(2)
Interleukin - I 8	485	(1)
HIV-I Tat Protein	485	(1)
Advantages of a Leaderless Secratory Pathway	486	(2)
References	488	(1)
SECTION V CONFLICT BETWEEN PATHOGENIC AGENTS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Viruses and Molecular Mimicry: The First ``Cybernetic Pirates''	489	(16)
Mauro S. Malnati
Paolo Lusso
Introduction	489	(1)
Molecular Mimicry among Poxviruses	490	(1)
Strategies to Survive: Invisible and Promiscuous	491	(1)
The Virus of Myxomatosis: Paradigm of Pathogenesis by Poxiviruses	492	(1)
Virulence Mechanisms of Poxiviruses	492	(8)
Conclusions	500	(1)
References	501	(4)
Immunological Defenses and Immunopathology	505	(14)
Lorenzo Moretta
Maria Cristina Mingari
The Immune System is Responsible for Protection against Pathogens	505	(3)
From Normal Immune Responses to Immunopathological Responses	508	(1)
Main Types of Immune Pathologies	508	(7)
Cross-Reaction between Microbic Products and Antigens of the Host: Molecular Mimesis	515	(1)
Immune Pathology Caused by Cells	515	(2)
References	517	(2)
Effector Mechanisms against Pathogens	519	(18)
Pietro Pala
Tracy Hussell
Peter J. M. Openshaw
Introduction	519	(15)
Conclusions	534	(1)
References	534	(3)
How Do Parasites Subvert the Immune Surveillance? The Example Leishmania	537	(8)
Pascal Launois
Reza Behin
Jacques A. Louis
Yasmine Belkaid
Genevieve Milon
Introduction	537	(1)
The Murine Model of Parasitism with L. major	538	(2)
Early Signals, within the Lymphoid Organs, Instructing the Functional Polarization of CD4 T Cell Precursors	540	(2)
Early Leukocyte Trafficking from the Parasite Loaded Dermis to the Lymphoid Organ	542	(1)
Conclusions	542	(1)
References	543	(2)
How Virsues Elude the Immune System	545	(14)
Emmanuel J.H.J. Wiertz
Introduction	545	(1)
Recognition of Viral Proteins by Cytotoxic T Cells	546	(1)
The Proteasome	547	(1)
A Herpes Simplex Virus-Encoded Protein Inhibits Peptide Transport by TAP.	547	(1)
Immune Evasion by HCMV Involves Multiple Mechanisms	548	(4)
Immune Evasion by Murine Cytomegalovirus	552	(1)
Escape Mechanisms of Epstein-Barr Virus	553	(3)
Immune Evasion by Adenoviruses	556	(1)
Possible Applications of Viral Escape Mechanisms in Vaccine and Drug Development	556	(1)
References	557	(2)
A Retrovirus Is Forever: The Lesson of HIV	559	(16)
Guido Poli
Introduction	559	(2)
Anatomy and Physiology of HIV	561	(4)
Natural History of the Disease and Therapeutic Strategies	565	(7)
Conclusions and Perspectives	572	(1)
References	572	(3)
SECTION VI STUDY MODELS AND APPLICATIONS
Vaccination	575	(10)
Antonello Covacci
Rino Rappuoli
Vaccination in the Classical Tradition	575	(3)
Viral Vaccines and Bacterial Vaccines	578	(2)
The Cellular and Molecular Basis of Vaccinology	580	(1)
The Future of Vaccines	581	(2)
References	583	(2)
Transgenic and Knockout Mice as Models of Immune Deficiency	585	(10)
Michael J. Owen
The Interactive Immune System	585	(2)
The Principle of Transgenesis and Gene Targeting	587	(1)
Lymphoid Development	587	(2)
Mice Defective in Lymphocyte Activation	589	(1)
Development of Th 1 and Th 2 Cells	590	(1)
Transgenic and Knockout Mice as Models of Inflammatory Bowel Disease	591	(1)
Conclusions	592	(1)
References	593	(2)
Toward an Artificial Immune System: The Immunotechnology	595	(16)
Silvia Biocca
Antonino Cattaneo
From Monoclonal Antibodies to Phage Libraries	596	(1)
Antibody Engineering	596	(1)
Antibody Libraries	597	(3)
Methods for Select Antibodies: Finding the Book in the Babel Library	600	(1)
Molecular Evolution of Antibodies	601	(1)
Expressing Antibodies in Artificial Environments	602	(1)
Expression of Antibodies in Lymphoid and Nonlymphoid Mammalian Cells	603	(1)
Expression of Antibodies in Prokaryotes	603	(1)
Catalytic Antibodies	603	(1)
Applications of Antibodies	604	(4)
Conclusions	608	(1)
References	609	(2)
Computer Modelling in Immunology	611
Ulrich Behn
Franco Celada
Philip E. Seiden
A Place for Modeling	609	(6)
Continuous Models	615	(6)
Discrete Models	621	(8)
References	629
Introduction to Volume III	xxvii
Rita Levi-Montalcini
PART ONE THE BRAIN OF HOMO SAPIENS
Introduction to Part One	3	(4)
Emilio Bizzi
Pietro Calissano
Virginia Volterra
SECTION I FROM LUCY TO HOMO SAPIENS
Human Brain Evolution	7	(14)
Terrance W. Deacon
A Brief Outline of Human Evolution	7	(3)
Uniqueness of Human Brains	10	(5)
Language and the Brain	15	(4)
References	19	(2)
In Search of Morphogenes	21	(16)
Edoardo Boncinelli
Ontogenesis and Phylogenesis	21	(1)
Categories of Genes and Proteins	22	(1)
At the Origins of Form	23	(1)
From Drosophila to Man	23	(1)
The HOX Homeogenes of the Trunk and of the Hindbrain	24	(3)
The Homeogenes of the Brain	27	(1)
Expression of the EMX and OTX Genes in Mouse Embryos	27	(1)
Early Expression of Otx2	28	(1)
Expression of OTX Genes in Territories and Confines of the Embryonic Brain	29	(1)
Expression of the EMX and OTX Genes in the Developing Cerebral Cortex	29	(2)
Results of the Functional Analysis	31	(1)
Phylogenetic Implications	32	(1)
Other Genes	33	(1)
References	34	(3)
The Evolution of Hemispheric Specialization	37	(14)
Jeffrey J. Hutsler
Matthew E. Gillespie
Michael S. Gazzaniga
Introduction	37	(1)
The Evolutionary Context	38	(2)
Morphological Asymmetry	40	(7)
Theories of Lateralized Cortical Functions	47	(1)
References	48	(3)
SECTION II THE NEURAL COMMUNICATION CODE
The Neuron as an Elementary Computational Unit	51	(16)
Idan Segev
Biophysics of Computation	51	(1)
Neurons: The Classical Static View	52	(6)
Neurons: The Dynamic View	58	(6)
Conclusion	64	(1)
References	64	(3)
The Modular Organization of the Neocortex	67	(20)
Vernon B. Mountcastle
Definitions and General Properties	67	(1)
The Ontogenesis of the Neocortex	68	(2)
Physiological Studies of Somatic Sensory Cortical Areas	70	(4)
Metabolic and Blood Flow Studies of the First Somatic Sensory Cortex	74	(1)
Physiological Studies in Other Heterotypical Cortical Areas	74	(5)
Physiological Studies of Homotypical Cortical Areas	79	(2)
The Anatomical Basis of Columnar Organization	81	(3)
Columnar Organization and Distributed Systems	84	(1)
References	84	(3)
SECTION III STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL BASIS OF LEARNING AND MEMORY PROCESSES
Visualizing Human Brain Functions	87	(24)
Adina L. Roskies
Steven E. Petersen
Introduction	87	(1)
Overview of Various Neuroimaging Modalities	88	(2)
Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography	90	(2)
The Physiological Basis of PET and fMRI: Blood Flow Reflects: Neural Activity	92	(1)
Activation Studies	93	(1)
Performance Characteristics of Neuroimaging Techniques	94	(2)
Temporal Characteristics	96	(1)
A Systems View of the Brain	97	(2)
Understanding Cognition Helps with Design Considerations	99	(5)
Issues of Data Analysis	104	(1)
Contributions of Neuroimaging to the Understanding of Brain Function	104	(4)
Conclusion	108	(1)
References	108	(3)
Molecular Mechanisms of Learning and Memory Processes	111	(14)
Craig H. Bailey
Ted Abel
Eric R. Kandel
Introduction	111	(1)
Molecular Studies of an Implicit Form of Learning in Aplysia: Sensitization of the Gill-Withdrawal Reflex	112	(2)
cAMP Acts as a Second Messenger Mediating Long-Term Facilitation	114	(1)
Long-Term Facilitation Requires the Activation of cAMP-Dependent Gene Expression and the Recruitment of CREB-Related Transcription Factors	114	(1)
Initiation of Long-Term Facilitation Requires the Coordinated Regulation of Both CREB1 and CREB2	115	(1)
Consolidation of Long-Term Facilitation Requires Induction of the Immediate Early Gene ApC/EBP	116	(1)
Stabilization of Long-Term Facilitation Is Associated with the Growth of New Synaptic Connections	117	(1)
Long-Term Memory for Implicit Forms of Learning in Drosophila Also Use the cAMP Cascade	118	(1)
Conserved Molecular Mechanisms for Long-Term Memory in Implicit and Explicit Learning	118	(2)
The Molecular Stages of Long-Term Memory Storage: Initiation, Consolidation and Stabilization	120	(2)
An Overall View	122	(1)
References	122	(3)
Memory Mechanisms in the Inferior Temporal Visual Cortex and Hippocampus	125	(18)
Edmund T. Rolls
Introduction	125	(1)
Brain Mechanisms Involved in Visual Object Recognition	125	(1)
Visual Cortical Areas in the Temporal Lobes	126	(1)
Distributed Encoding of Face and Object Identity	126	(1)
A Neuronal Representation of Visual Stimuli Showing Invariance	127	(1)
Learning of New Representations in the Temporal Cortical Visual Areas	127	(1)
The Speed of Processing in the Temporal Cortical Visual Areas	128	(1)
Possible Computational Mechanisms in the Visual Cortex for Learning Invariant Representations	129	(3)
A Computational Model of Invariant Visual Object Recognition	132	(2)
The Hippocampus and Memory	134	(6)
Conclusions	140	(1)
References	140	(3)
Genes, Brains and Behavior: What Genetic Disorders Reveal about Behavior	143	(12)
Ursula Bellugi
Zona Lai
Julie Korenburg
Introduction	143	(1)
Decoupling between Language and Other Cognitive Functions	144	(3)
Peaks and Valleys in Spatial Cognition in Williams Syndrome	147	(1)
Stages of Development in Williams Syndrome	148	(1)
The Neurobiological Basis of Williams Syndrome	148	(3)
Implications for Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience	151	(1)
References	151	(4)
SECTION IV THE CONTROL OF MOVEMENT
Learning and Control of Actions	155	(18)
E. Bizzi
F. A. Mussa-Ivaldi
Introduction	155	(1)
The Computational Problem	156	(9)
Motor Learning: The Role of Internal Models	165	(5)
Conclusion	170	(1)
References	171	(2)
Cortical Control of Movement	173	(24)
Giacomo Rizzolatti
Luciano Fadiga
Introduction	173	(2)
The Circuits Forming the Cortical Motor System	175	(1)
The Cortical Circuit for Grasping Movements	175	(8)
The Cortical Circuit for Reaching Objects	183	(6)
The Mesial Motor Areas	189	(2)
Higher Functions of the Agranular Frontal Cortex	191	(3)
Serial and Parallel Organization of the Granular Frontal Areas	194	(1)
References	195	(2)
SECTION V VISION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION
Visual Agnosia	197	(6)
Martha J. Farah
Introduction	197	(1)
The Taxonomy of Visual Agnosia	197	(1)
Agnosia with Prominent Perceptual Difficulties: The Apperceptive Agnosias	198	(1)
Agnosia with Subtle Perceptual Difficulties: The Associative Agnosias	199	(3)
References	202	(1)
Selective Attention	203	(8)
Glyn W. Humphreys
Neural Mechanisms of Selective Attention	203	(2)
Psychological Evidence	205	(1)
Neuropsychological Evidence	206	(2)
Selective Attention in Other Modalities	208	(1)
Conclusions	209	(1)
References	209	(2)
Cortical Plasticity	211	(24)
Lamberto Maffei
Nicoletta Berardi
Introduction	211	(3)
Development of the Nervous System	214	(9)
Plasticity in Adult Brain	223	(9)
References	232	(3)
SECTION VI EMOTIONS
Brain Mechanisms of Emotion and Emotional Learning	235	(16)
Kevin LaBar
Joseph E. LeDoux
Introduction	235	(1)
Fear Conditioning: An Overview	236	(1)
The Neural System Underlying Fear Conditioning	236	(3)
Assessing Dangerous Situations	239	(1)
Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms	240	(2)
Cortical Control of Emotional Responding	242	(2)
The Emotional Brain in Humans	244	(2)
Conclusions and Challenges	246	(1)
References	247	(4)
Emotion, Decision Making and Ethics	251	(10)
Antonio R. Damasio
Introduction	251	(1)
The Neurobiology of Emotion at the Large-Scale Neural System Level	252	(4)
The Neurobiology of Personal/Social Reasoning and Decision Making At the Large-Scale Neural System Level	256	(2)
Conclusions	258	(1)
References	259	(2)
SECTION VII THE HUMAN LANGUAGE
On the Nature and Nurture of Language	261	(28)
Elizabeth Bates
Introduction	261	(3)
The Component Parts of Language	264	(3)
Speech Sounds	267	(7)
Words and Grammar	274	(9)
Pragmatics and Discourse	283	(2)
Conclusion	285	(1)
References	286	(3)
The Neuropsychology of Language	289	(22)
Gianfrano Denes
Introduction	289	(5)
The Neurological Bases of Gestural Language	294	(1)
Language Representation in Multilinguals	295	(1)
Language and the Right Hemisphere	295	(1)
The Cognitive Neuroanatomy of Language: Functional Methods of Investigation	296	(4)
The Organization of the Lexicon: Neuropsychological Data	300	(4)
The Neuropsychology of Reading and Writing	304	(4)
Developmental Dyslexia	308	(1)
References	308	(3)
The Human Language: Evolutionary Perspective in Sign Language	311	(16)
William C. Stokoe
Sign Languages Are Too Often Omitted from Long Views of Language	311	(1)
A Brief Overview of Primary and Alternate Sign Languages	312	(2)
Seeing Language in Sign as Well as in Speech	314	(1)
Semiotics Is Better Equipped Than Linguistics to See Signs Evolving	315	(1)
Sign Languages Are Semiotically Different	316	(1)
Language Uses a Dual Sign System	316	(1)
Brains and Language	317	(2)
Information Transfer	319	(1)
First Words	319	(1)
The Appearance of Syntax	320	(1)
Structure and Function in Evolution of Language	321	(2)
A Long Perspective	323	(2)
References	325	(2)
SECTION VIII THOUGHT AND SELFCONSCIOUSNESS
The Mind-Brain Problem	327	(22)
Paul M. Churchland
Patricia S. Churchland
Introduction	327	(1)
The First Division: Materialist versus Dualist Solutions	328	(2)
The Second Division: Reductionist versus Anti-reductionist Solutions	330	(3)
The Third Division: Revisionist versus Conservative Solutions	333	(3)
The Problem of Meaning or Semantic Content	336	(3)
The Problem of Sensory Qualia	339	(6)
The Problem of Consciousness	345	(2)
References	347	(2)
The ``Conscious I'': A Neuroheuristic Approach to the Mind	349	(26)
John G. Taylor
Alessandro E.P. Villa
Introduction	349	(1)
A Dynamical Paradigm for the Neurosciences	350	(3)
The Relational Mind	353	(2)
The ``Conscious I'' Gating Model	355	(5)
Return to Consciousness	360	(4)
Active Consciousness	364	(3)
Concluding Remarks	367	(1)
References	367	(4)
PART TWO BUILDING BLOCKS FOR INTELLIGENCE SYSTEMS
Introduction to Part Two	371	(4)
Daniel Amit
Giorgio Parisi
SECTION I HISTORY AND METHODOLOGY
History of Concepts and Techniques	375	(26)
Jack D. Cowan
Introduction	375	(1)
McCulloch-Pitts Networks	376	(1)
Fault Tolerance and Distributed Processing	376	(1)
Neurodynamics	377	(5)
Associative Learning and Memory	382	(9)
Nerual Computation	391	(5)
Statistics and Information Theory	396	(2)
Conclusions	398	(1)
References	399	(2)
The Study of Brain Function: Methodological Considerations	401	(20)
Frank van der Velde
Brain Function as Computations That Give Rise to Behavior	401	(2)
From Reflex to Intelligence	403	(1)
Interactions between Representations: The Stroop Effect	404	(1)
Modeling Intelligent Behavior	405	(1)
Integrating Different Kinds of Information	406	(1)
Computation as the Mathematics of Behavior	407	(1)
Functions and Behavior	407	(1)
Two Kinds of Machines	408	(1)
Productive Use of Knowledge in Cognition	409	(2)
Productive Use of Representations in Visual Search	411	(1)
Productivity in Computational Terms	411	(1)
A FSA as Exhaustive Contingency Planning	412	(1)
Interaction between Program and Memory	413	(2)
Working Memory as a Configuration Space	415	(1)
Configuration Space for Visual Processing	415	(1)
Binding Location and Identity in Visual Processing	416	(1)
Incremental Learning in Cognition	417	(2)
Conclusion	419	(1)
References	420	(1)
SECTION II THE GLOBAL APPROACH
Cortical Structure and Function: Circuits, Areas and Behavior	421	(20)
Kathleen S. Rockland
Introduction	421	(1)
Cortical Areas	422	(6)
Cortical Connections	428	(7)
Large-Scale Architectures	435	(3)
Conclusion	438	(1)
References	438	(3)
Imaging Language	441	(20)
Friedemann Pulvermuller
Cell Assemblies: Building Blocks of Cognition	441	(1)
Cell Assemblies Representing Word Forms Include Neurons of Both Frontal and Temporal Cortices	442	(2)
Lateralization of Language Does Not Mean That Language is Restricted to One of the Hemispheres	444	(1)
Concrete and Abstract Words May Be Represented in Cell Assemblies with Different Degrees of Laterality	444	(1)
Words Referring to Movements of the Own Body and Words Referring to Visually Perceivable Objects May Have Different Assemblies	445	(2)
Some Empirical Predictions	447	(1)
Some Methodological Considerations	447	(1)
Content and Function Words Evoke Different Patterns of Electrocortical Activity in the Hemispheres	448	(2)
PET Evidence from Verb Generation	450	(1)
Different Electrocortical Responses to Nouns and Verbs over Motor and Visual Cortices	451	(1)
PET Studies of Tool and Animal Testing	451	(2)
Motor and Visual Words are Different	453	(1)
Cell Assemblies May Generate Coherent High-Frequency Responses	453	(1)
Brain Rhythms Evoked by Word and Pseudowords	454	(1)
Nouns and Verbs Elicit Different Topographies of High-Frequency Cortical Responses	455	(1)
Conclusions	456	(1)
References	457	(4)
SECTION III BRAIN COMPONENTS AS ELEMENTS OF INTELLIGENT FUNCTION
The Cognitive Map Theory of Hippocampal Function	461	(24)
John O'Keefe
Cognitive Map Theory	461	(1)
Two Types of Cells in the Rat Hippocampus	462	(1)
Hippocampal Pyramidal Cells Signal the Animal's Location in an Environment	462	(4)
Factors Deterring a Place Field's Location	466	(4)
Temporal Properties of Place Cell Firing	470	(1)
Place Cells Are Involved in the Memory for Places as well as in the Representation of Places	471	(3)
Complex Spike Cell Firing during Sleep May Be Modulated by Prior Spatial Learning Experiences	474	(1)
Cells in the Dorsal Presubiculum Code for the Animal's Head Direction	474	(3)
Interactions between Hippocampal Place Cells and Head Direction Cells	477	(1)
Hippocampal Units in the Monkey Fire Differently to Places and to Objects in Places during Conditional Place Discrimination Tasks	478	(1)
The Effect of Lesions of the Hippocampal Formation on Spatial Memory Navigation	478	(3)
Cognitive Maps in Humans in Humans	481	(2)
References	483	(2)
Temporal Cortex and Prefrontal Cortex: Representation and Activation of the Visual Memory	485	(24)
Hyoe Tomita
Achiko Ohbayashi
Kiyoshi Nakahara
Yasushi Miyashita
Introduction	485	(1)
Inferior Temporal Cortex and Visual Information Processing	486	(1)
Neuropsychological Aspects of Temporal Cortical Lessions in Humans and Nonhuman Primates	487	(8)
The Medical Temporal Lobe: How Is the Association Database Formed and maintained?	495	(1)
Neuropsychology	495	(6)
Prefrontal Cortex	501	(5)
Conclusion	506	(1)
References	507	(2)
The Olfactory System: Odor Detection and Classification	509	(18)
Walter J. Freeman
Introduction	509	(4)
Operations on Sensory Input by the Central Olfactory System	513	(1)
Derivation of Equations for Modeling Olfactory Neural Activity	514	(4)
Local and Global Stabilization of the Olfactory System	518	(1)
Macroscopic Olfactory Function Relating to Behavior	519	(5)
Conclusions	524	(2)
References	526	(1)
Olfaction	527	(10)
John Hopfield
Ethology	527	(1)
Sensory Cells and Their Signals	528	(2)
Three Computational Problems of Olfaction	530	(2)
Anatomy of Olfactory Systems	532	(2)
Specialist Systems	534	(1)
References	534	(3)
The Auditory System: Sound and Speech Recognition	537	(24)
Israel Nelken
The Function of the Auditory System	537	(1)
Representation of Sounds	538	(1)
General Considerations in the Study of the Auditory System	539	(1)
Structure and Simple Response Properties of the Auditory System	540	(6)
Responses to Complex Sounds in the Auditory System	546	(7)
Sound Localization and Echolocation	553	(6)
Conclusions	559	(1)
References	559	(2)
Neural Representations, Assemblies and the Role of Synchronization	561	(14)
Wolf Singer
Introduction	561	(1)
The Analysis and Representation of Relations	562	(1)
The Signature of Assemblies	563	(1)
Cellular Prerequisites for Selection by Synchronization	564	(1)
Rapid Synchronization	565	(2)
Functional Correlates of Response Synchronization	567	(1)
Perception	568	(2)
Significance of Oscillatory Firing Patterns	570	(2)
Conclusion	572	(1)
References	572	(3)
Network Oscillations in the Hippocampal Formation	575	(14)
Gyorgy Buzsaki
Timing by Interneuron Networks	575	(2)
Oscillations in the Hippocampal-Entorhinal Cortical System	577	(1)
Theta-Modulated Gamma Activity	578	(4)
Hypothesized Functions of Hippocampal Theta/Gamma Oscillations	582	(1)
Sharp Wave-Induced 200-Hz Oscillation	582	(2)
Are Oscillations Useful?	584	(2)
Network Oscillations without Interneurons	586	(1)
Necessary Condition or Epiphenomenon?	586	(1)
References	587	(2)
SECTION IV IMPLEMENTATIONS OF NEURAL DEVICES FOR PARALLEL DISTRIBUTIVE PROCESSING
Communications Infrastructure for Neuromorphic Analog Very Large-Scale Integration Systems	589	(14)
Rodney Douglas
Misha Mahowald
Adrian Whatley
Introduction	589	(1)
Single-Chip Networks	590	(1)
Interchip Communication	590	(4)
Multiplexing Pulses	594	(1)
Address-Event Systems	594	(1)
Event Timing and Delays	595	(1)
Routing	596	(1)
Synapses	597	(2)
Conclusions	599	(1)
References	600	(3)
Neuromorphic Sensory Processing Using Analog Very Large-Scale Integration	603	(14)
Giacomo Indiveri
Christoph Rasche
Rodney Douglas
Introduction	603	(1)
Silicon Retinae	603	(2)
Specific Sensory Processing Chips	605	(4)
General Processing Networks	609	(4)
Neuromorphic Systems	613	(1)
Conclusion	614	(1)
References	615	(2)
Special-Purpose Electronic Neural Devices	617	(18)
Joshua Alspector
Introduction	617	(2)
Comparisons with Biology	619	(2)
A Selection of Analog Implementations	621	(2)
Digital Implementations	623	(1)
Case Study: A Boltzmann Machine Learning Chip	623	(8)
Future Prospects for Electronic Neural Systems	631	(2)
References	633	(2)
Dynamic Learning of Working Memory: An Electronic Implementation	635	(22)
Daniel J. Amit
Paolo Del Giudice
Stefano Fusi
Working Memory and Classification of Stimuli	635	(1)
Experimentation in Neurophysiology	635	(4)
The Theoretical Aspects of Neural Models	639	(4)
Electronic Neural Networks: Models, Simulations and Hardware	643	(11)
References	654	(3)
SECTION V INFORMATION FLOW IN AND OUT OF NEURAL SYSTEMS
Prospects and Pitfalls in the Measurement of Neural Information Transmission	657	(14)
William Bialek
Introduction	657	(1)
Foundations	658	(1)
Some Fundamental Concepts	658	(2)
Experiment	660	(8)
Old Dreams Revisited	668	(1)
References	669	(2)
Reading the Information in the Outcome of Neural Computation	671	(20)
John Hertz
Introduction	671	(1)
Neural Coding	672	(1)
Information Theory: Basic Concepts	673	(1)
Statistical Considerations	674	(1)
Estimating Finite Sample-Size Corrections	675	(1)
Fundamental Constraints on Information Transmission by Neurons	675	(1)
Neuronal Decoding	676	(1)
Some History	676	(2)
Specialized Sensory Neurons	678	(4)
Primate Visual System Neurons	682	(3)
Statistical Questions	685	(1)
Multineuron Coding	686	(1)
Conclusions	687	(1)
References	688	(3)
Information Processing in a Biological System	691	(26)
Apostolos P. Georgopoulos
Reaching Movements	691	(1)
Information Theory	692	(4)
Neural Aspects of Motor Information Processing	696	(6)
Processing of Directional Information in Various Tasks	702	(10)
Processing of Directional Information through the Spinal Cord	712	(3)
References	715	(2)
Learning to See	717	(12)
Tomaso Poggio
Introduction	717	(1)
Visual Tasks and Learning Boxes	718	(1)
Theory and Applications	719	(5)
Image Representations	724	(1)
How the Brain Works	724	(3)
References	727	(2)
Machine Vision	729	(18)
Pietro Parodi
Vincent Torre
Introduction	729	(1)
Understanding a Line Drawing	730	(7)
Extracting the Line Drawing	737	(8)
Conclusion	745	(1)
References	745	(2)
Section VI MODEL NEURAL NETWORKS FOR COMPUTATION AND LEARNING
Perceptrons, Past and Present	747	(16)
Gerard Dreyfus
Leon Personnaz
Gerard Toulouse
Introduction	747	(1)
Where Do We Stand?	747	(7)
How Did We Get There?	754	(7)
References	761	(2)
Learning to Generalize	763	(14)
Manfred Opper
Introduction	763	(1)
Artificial Neural Networks	764	(1)
The Perceptron	765	(1)
Capacity, VC Dimension and Worst-Case Generalization	766	(2)
Typical Scenario: The Approach of Statistical Physics	768	(2)
Query Learning	770	(1)
Bad Students and Good Students	770	(2)
The Ising Perceptron	772	(1)
Learning with Errors	772	(1)
More Sophisticated Computations Are Needed for Multilayer Networks	773	(1)
Outlook	774	(1)
References	775	(2)
Neural Networks and Artificial Life	777	(22)
Domenico Parisi
Neural Networks	777	(2)
Neural Networks and Artificial Life	779	(2)
The Influence of Organisms on Their Environment	781	(5)
Neural Networks with a Genotype	786	(6)
AL and Human Behavior	792	(4)
Conclusions	796	(1)
References	797	(2)
A Neural Network Approach to Computational Color Vision	799
Shigeki Nakauchi
Shiro Urui
Introduction	799	(1)
Color Representation in the Visual Pathway	799	(2)
Color Vision Models by Neural Networks with Supervised Learning	801	(1)
Color Vision Models by Neural Networks with Unsupervised Learning	802	(4)
Conclusion	806	(1)
References	806
Introduction to the Volume	xxi
David Baltimore
PART ONE: BIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR
Introduction to Part One	3	(4)
Enrico Alleva
Patrick Bateson
SECTION I HISTORICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
The History of Animal Behavior Study	7	(14)
John Durant
Prehistory	7	(2)
Darwinian Foundations	9	(1)
Formative Phase	10	(2)
Classical Phase	12	(3)
Mature Phase	15	(2)
Recent trends	17	(2)
References	19	(2)
Ethology, Psychology and the Social Sciences	21	(8)
Robert A. Hinde
Introduction	21	(1)
Questions of Development and Causation	22	(3)
Questions of Evolution and Function	25	(2)
Conclusion	27	(1)
References	27	(2)
Animal Welfare	29	(16)
Georgia Mason
Is It Right to Treat Animals as if They Have Feelings?	29	(2)
If Animals Have Feelings How Can We Access Them?	31	(2)
Desires and Aversions: Measuring Animal Preferences	33	(2)
Putting these Procedures to Assess Animal Welfare	35	(2)
What Science Has Contributed to Animal Welfare	37	(3)
Animal Welfare Research: Where Next?	40	(2)
References	42	(3)
SECTION II BEHAVIOR CONTROL MECHANISMS
Imprinting	45	(10)
Johan J. Bolhuis
Introduction	45	(1)
Filial Imprinting	46	(1)
Imprinting and Learning	47	(1)
Representation of Complex Stimuli	48	(1)
Predispositions	49	(1)
Introduction and Development of a Filial Predisposition	49	(1)
Interaction between Predispositions and Imprinting	50	(1)
Stimulus Selection in Filial Predispositions	50	(1)
Sensitive Periods	51	(1)
Sexual Imprinting	51	(1)
Imprinting and the Development of Behavior	52	(1)
References	53	(2)
The Ontogeny of Learning	55	(12)
Gemma Calamandrei
Introduction	55	(1)
The Ecological Approach to the Ontogeny of Learning	56	(1)
The Ontogeny of Learning in Rodents	57	(2)
Infantile Amnesia	59	(1)
Neuronal Bases for Early Olfactory Preferences	60	(1)
Maturation of Cholinergic Control of Behavior	61	(1)
The Ontogeny of Learning in Human and Nonhuman Primates	62	(2)
Conclusions	64	(1)
References	64	(3)
Song Learning	67	(12)
Peter Marler
Special Brain Mechanisms	68	(1)
Sensitive Periods for Learning	69	(1)
The Ontogeny of Learned Song	69	(2)
Overproduction, Attrition and Action-Based Learning	71	(1)
Effects of Isolation and Deafness	72	(1)
Learning	73	(1)
The Role of Innate Knowledge in Song Development	74	(1)
Other Aspects of the Song Learning Process	74	(1)
Song Development as a Creative Process	75	(1)
Conclusions	76	(1)
References	76	(3)
Emotional States and the Immune System	79	(16)
Robert Dantzer
We Tend to Believe That Emotions Impact on Health	79	(1)
This Relationship Is Difficult to Prove by The Methods of Epidemiology	80	(1)
If Emotions Can Impact on Health, It Must Be through the Changes in Physiology That They Induce	81	(1)
Stress-Induced Changes in Physiology Are Associated with Alterations to Immune Functions	82	(1)
Stressors Influence Immune Functions Because The Brain Is Closely Connected to the Immune System	82	(2)
Psychological Factors, Including Social Condition, Influence Immune Functions	84	(1)
Pschological Factors also Influence Immune Functions in Humans	85	(3)
Can the Immune System Be Submitted to Learning Influences?	88	(1)
Multiple Mechanisms Account for the Influences of Psychological Factors on Immune Functions	88	(1)
The Immune System Is Sensitive to Psychological Factors Because Its Functioning is Regulated By the Nervous System	89	(1)
For Regulation to Occur, the Immune System Needs to Communicate with the Brain and It Does So via Cytokines	90	(1)
Biological Accounts of How Psychological Factors Influence Immune Functions Are Not Sufficient to Understand the Relationship between Stress, Emotion and Disease	91	(2)
References	93	(2)
Hormones and Behavior	95	(14)
Jacques Balthazart
Lauren V. Riters
Introduction	95	(1)
Hormones Implicated in Behavioral Regulation	96	(1)
Cellular Mechanisms of Hormone Action	96	(5)
Organizational Action Steroids	101	(2)
Specific Behavioral Systems	103	(3)
Effects of Behavior on Neuroendocrine Systems	106	(1)
Conclusion	107	(1)
References	107	(2)
Stress and Coping	109	(12)
Seymour Levine
Francesca Cerulli
Introduction	109	(2)
Input (to Stress)	111	(1)
Processing Variable: The CNS (Stress)	112	(2)
Outcome Variables (The Stress Response)	114	(5)
Conclusions	119	(1)
References	119	(2)
Biological Variation of Cognition and Learning	121	(32)
Hans-Peter Lipp
Genetic Variation of Memory and Learning	122	(1)
Animal Cognition and Its Measurement	122	(3)
Brain Structures and Connections Subserving Memory and Cognition	125	(4)
Regions in which Genes Can Act to Change Memory and Cognition	129	(1)
When Genes Must Act to Influence Cognition: Flechsig's Rule (the Later the Better)	130	(1)
How Genes Produce Variation in Memory and Learning	130	(1)
Antagonists of Genetic Variation: Brain Plasticity	131	(5)
Size Variation of the Hippocampal Mossy Fiber System and Complex Learning	136	(5)
Biological Variation of Cognition and Learning: Forward versus Reverse Genetics	141	(1)
References	141	(2)
Functional Rules for Decision Making
Leslie A. Real
Introduction	143	(1)
Rules for Finding Mates	144	(2)
Rules for Choosing Resources	146	(1)
A Functional Rule for Floral Choice	147	(1)
Implementation	148	(2)
Rules for Cooperation vs Deception	150	(1)
Conclusion	151	(1)
References	152	(1)
Behavior Genetic Analysis	153	(10)
Pierre L. Roubertoux
Michele Carlier
Introduction	153	(2)
What Trait Should Be Used for a Genetic Analysis	155	(1)
Is There Evidence for Genetic Correlates of Aggression	156	(1)
Genes Implicated in Aggression	157	(2)
Other Species, Other Behaviors	159	(2)
References	161	(2)
Biological Clocks	163	(12)
Gianluca Tosini
Michael Menaker
Introduction	163	(1)
Biological Rhythms Have a Wide Range of Periods	163	(1)
Biological Rhythms with No Relationship to Geophysical Cycles	164	(1)
Biological Rhythms with Periods Similar to Those of Geophysical Cycles	165	(1)
General Properties of Circadian Oscillators	166	(2)
Circadian Clocks Are Ubiquitous	168	(2)
Organization of Circadian Systems	170	(1)
Generation of the Circadian Oscillation	171	(1)
Adaptive Significance	172	(1)
References	173	(2)
Animal Navigation	175	(18)
Floriano Papi
Introduction	175	(1)
Research Methods	176	(1)
General Characteristics of Long-Distance Movements	176	(2)
The Instruments of Navigation: Compass and Map	178	(4)
Navigational Mechanisms	182	(8)
Final Consideration	190	(1)
References	191	(2)
Bird Migration: Its Control by Endogenous Clocks	193	(14)
Eberhard Gwinner
Bird Migration: A Global Phenomenon	193	(3)
Adaptations of Migratory Birds	196	(1)
Temporal Control of Migration	197	(1)
Internal Mechanisms Controlling the Onset of Migration	197	(7)
Supplementation or Replacement of Circannual Programs by Mechanisms Based on Learning	204	(2)
Evolutionary Changes of Migratory Programs	206	(1)
References	206	(1)
Sperm Competition	207	(14)
Montserrat Gomendio
What Is Sperm Competiton?	207	(1)
Mechanisms of Sperm Competition	208	(3)
The Male	211	(1)
The Female	212	(2)
The Conflict	214	(2)
The Outcome	216	(2)
References	218	(3)
SECTION III PSYCHOLOGICAL AND COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOR
Tool Use by Monkeys and Apes	221	(10)
Elisabetta Visalberghi
Dorothy Fragaszy
Introduction	221	(1)
Why Tool Use Is an Important Topic in Biology	222	(1)
Tool Use in the Animal Kingdom	222	(5)
How Is Tool Use Acquired?	227	(1)
Analyzing Cognitive Elements in Tool Use	228	(1)
Conclusion	229	(1)
References	230	(1)
Spatial Representation	231	(10)
Ken Cheng
The Importance of Finding a Place	231	(1)
Place Finding as Servomechanism	232	(2)
Path Integration in Hamsters	234	(1)
Landmark-Based Spatial Memory in Honeybees	235	(2)
Landmark-Based Spatial Memory in Vertebrates	237	(3)
Conclusions	240	(1)
References	240	(1)
Interval Timing	241	(10)
Melissa Bateson
Biological Clocks and Interval Timing	241	(1)
Experimental Paradigms Used to Prove That Animals Have an Interval Time Sense	242	(2)
Behavioral Features of the Interval Timing Clock	244	(1)
Functions	245	(2)
Mechanisms	247	(2)
Development	249	(1)
Phylogeny	249	(1)
References	249	(2)
SECTION IV SOCIALIZATION
Social Play in Mammals	251	(9)
Marc Bekoff
What Is Play?	251	(2)
Social Play: Evolution, Cooperation and Negotiation	253	(2)
Play Signals and Intentional Behavior: Do Animals Negotiate Agreements?	255	(1)
Initiating, Maintaining and Agreeing to Play	256	(2)
Social Play and the Comparative Analysis of Animal Minds: Evolutionary Continuity	258	(1)
References	259	(1)
Social Learning and Imitation	260	(11)
Bennet G. Galef, Jr.
Why Study Social Learning?	261	(1)
Nonimitative Social Learning?	262	(3)
Learning How to Court: Learning in Brown-Headed Cowbirds	265	(1)
Imitation	266	(3)
Conclusion	269	(1)
References	269	(2)
Cooperation	271	(14)
Gerald S. Wilkinson
Cooperation Poses an Evolutionary Dilemma	271	(2)
Partner Fidelity Permits Cooperation	273	(2)
Kinship Permits Cooperation	275	(3)
The Problem with Group Selection	278	(1)
Enforcing Cooperation	278	(4)
Human Cooperation	282	(1)
References	282	(3)
Aggression	285	(14)
Felicity A. Huntingford
Defining Aggression	285	(1)
Patterns of Aggression in the Animal Kingdom	286	(1)
Within-Species Variability in Aggressiveness	286	(2)
Questions About Aggression	288	(1)
Causes and Development of Aggression	289	(4)
The Costs and Benefits of Aggression: Body Size, Resource Value and Fighting in Lizard, Fish and Crabs	293	(2)
Practical Applications of the Biology of Aggression: Reducing Fighting in Farmed Fish	295	(1)
References	296	(3)
Breeding Systems	299	(14)
John D. Reynolds
Introduction	299	(1)
Differences between the Sexes	300	(1)
Relationship between Parental Care and Sexual Selection	300	(1)
Potential Rates of Reproduction	301	(1)
Operational Sex Ratios	301	(1)
Role of the Environment	302	(3)
Sperm Competition	305	(1)
Unusual Breeding Systems	305	(3)
Conflicts between the Sexes	308	(2)
Phylogenetic Transitions	310	(1)
References	311	(2)
Parental Care	313	(14)
Fritz Trillmich
Rudolf Diesel
What Is Parental Care?	313	(1)
Parental Care Evolved as a Solution to Ecological Problems	314	(1)
Fuel for the Ontogeny	315	(2)
Evolution of Parental Care by Male and Female	317	(1)
Patterns of Brood Care in Higher Vertebrates	318	(1)
Parental Investment	319	(1)
Conflict about Parental Care	320	(3)
Helping	323	(1)
Parasitism of Brood Care	324	(1)
Eusociality	324	(1)
References	324	(3)
Conflict Resolution in Primates	327	(10)
Frans B. M. De Waal
Filippo Aureli
Introduction	327	(1)
The Need to Preserve Relationships	328	(1)
Reconciliation Behavior	329	(1)
Social Learning	330	(1)
Complexity and Cognition	330	(2)
Distress Alleviation and Empathy	332	(1)
How Is Aggression Avoided?	333	(1)
Conclusion	334	(1)
References	334	(3)
SECTION V EVOLUTION AND BEHAVIOR
Comparative Methods in the Study of Behavior	337	(14)
John L. Gittleman
The Importance of Phylogeny	337	(1)
The Nature of Phylogenies	338	(1)
Uses and Abuses of Comparative Data	339	(1)
New Comparative Methods	340	(2)
Comparative Methods Show Patterns of Behavioral Evolution	342	(7)
New Directions	349	(1)
References	350	(1)
Life Histories	351	(10)
Stephen C. Stearns
Life History Evolution is Caused by the Interactions of Demography, Genetics, Trade-Offs and Constraints	351	(1)
Age and Size at Maturity Are Pivotal Traits	352	(2)
The Diversity of Reproductive Investment	354	(1)
The Reproductive Effort Model Makes Quantitative Predictions That Withstand Experimental Test	354	(2)
Life Span and Aging Are Explained by both Life History Optimization and Nonadaptive Genetic Variation	356	(3)
Future Challenges	359	(1)
References	359	(2)
Sexual Selection	361	(12)
Malte Andersson
Introduction	361	(1)
What Is Sexual Selection?	361	(3)
Mate Choice and Mating Preferences	364	(1)
Empirical Results	364	(2)
Case Studies	366	(4)
Costs of Sexual Selection	370	(1)
Sexual Dimorphism, Hormones, Immune Defense and Mate Choice	370	(1)
Alternative Mating Tactics	370	(1)
Sexual Selection in Plants	370	(1)
References	371	(2)
Wasps as Models for the Study of the Evolution of Insect Society	373	(22)
Stefano Turilazzi
Mary Jane West-Eberhard
The Importance of Social Insects in the Study of the Mechanisms and Evolution of Social Behavior	373	(2)
Social Wasps as Models for the Study of Social Evolution and Its Mechanisms	375	(2)
Major Themes of Sociality and Their Study in Wasps	377	(7)
Conclusions	384	(1)
References	385	(4)
PART TWO DISCOVERY AND SPOLIATION OF THE BIOSPHERE
Introduction to Part Two	389	(6)
Elgene O. Box
Sandro Pignatti
SECTION I THE BIOSPHERE
Evolution, Coevolution and Biodiversity	395	(26)
Anselm Kratochwill
Angelika Schwabe
Basic Principles	395	(1)
Evolution	396	(9)
Macroevolution	405	(2)
Coevolution	407	(11)
References	418	(3)
Energy Flux and Primary Production	421	(14)
Riccardo Valentini
Introduction	421	(2)
A Working Definition of Biosphere	423	(1)
Energy Transformation in Ecosystems	423	(9)
References	432	(3)
Landscapes and Their Ecological Components	435	(14)
Almo Farina
Introduction	435	(1)
Landscapes	436	(2)
Theories and Models Embraced by Landscape Ecology	438	(2)
Ecotones	440	(2)
Cultural Landscapes	442	(1)
Ecosystem Management	443	(2)
Methodological Approaches to Studying Landscapes	445	(2)
References	447	(2)
Learning From the Past?	449	(30)
Lukas Hottinger
Introduction	449	(1)
The Biased Nature of the Documents of Earth History	450	(4)
Levels of Abstraction When Reading the Biotic Documents	454	(14)
Timescale of the Phanerozoic	468	(3)
Processes of Geological Dimensions	471	(4)
Conclusions	475	(1)
References	476	(3)
A Changing Planet	479	(10)
Elgene O. Box
Introduction	479	(2)
Climatic Change	481	(1)
Biotic Change	482	(3)
Land Conversion: The Other Driver of Change	485	(1)
Changes in Human Values	486	(1)
Summary	486	(1)
References	486	(3)
SECTION II MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Landscape Ecology	489	(20)
Vittorio Ingegnoli
Introduction	489	(1)
Landscape and Ecology	490	(1)
New Scientific Paradigms	491	(2)
Landscape Ecology: Toward the Frontier of Ecology	493	(2)
Principal Characters of A System of Ecosystems	495	(3)
New Perspectives in Ecology	498	(2)
Applications of Landscape Ecology	500	(6)
References	506	(3)
Human-Vegetation Coevolution in the Mediterranean Ecosystem	509	(10)
Sandro Pignatti
Domestication of Agrarian Plants	509	(1)
A Rapidly Changing Environment and Biodiversity	510	(1)
The Evergreen Woods of Mediterranean Type	511	(1)
Evolution by Reduction	512	(2)
The Ecology of Fire and the Origins of the Garigue	514	(1)
The Mediterranean Orchard	515	(2)
Transcontinental Diffusion	517	(1)
Conclusion	517	(1)
References	518	(1)
Ecosystems Controlled by Man	519	(16)
Fabio Caporali
Regulation or Control of Ecosystems	519	(1)
Human Interference with the Ecosystems	520	(1)
Controlling the Spatiotemporal Distribution of Ecosystems	521	(2)
Agriculture as a Human Activity System	523	(1)
Past Orientation of Human Activity Systems	524	(1)
Agroecosystem Regulation	525	(6)
Orientation of Human Activity Systems toward Sustainable Development	531	(1)
Conclusions	531	(1)
References	532	(3)
The Urban Environment	535	(36)
Herbert Sukopp
Introduction	535	(1)
History of Human Influence on the Urban Environment	536	(1)
Urban Ecology	537	(1)
The City as a New Type of Environment	537	(3)
Flora, Fauna and Biotic Communities	540	(7)
The Distribution of Urban Habitats	547	(2)
The Future of Urban Nature	549	(3)
Methods of Urban Habitat Mapping	552	(2)
References	554	(3)
Artistic and Historical Monuments: Threatened Ecosystems
Pier Luigh Nimis
Works of Art as Ecosystems	557	(1)
Biodeterioration of Works of Art	558	(1)
Ecological Study of Outdoor Monuments	558	(4)
Ecological Study of Indoor Artwork	562	(2)
Ecological Study of Submerged Artwork	564	(1)
What Can Be Done?	565	(3)
References	568	(3)
SECTION III CHANGES TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL CYCLE
The Scientific Basis for Regulatory Actions on Water Resources Quality Control	571	(8)
Giuseppe Chiaudani
Definition and Application of Water Quality and Criteria	571	(2)
The Function of Scientific Research	573	(2)
Remarks on the Global Ecosystems Management Approach	575	(1)
Conclusions	576	(2)
References	578	(1)
Ecotoxicology	579	(18)
David B. Peakall
Introduction	579	(1)
Pollutants and Their Fate in the Ecosystems	580	(4)
Effects of Pollutants on Organisms	584	(6)
Effects of Pollutants at Higher Organizational Levels	590	(2)
Case Studies	592	(4)
References	596	(1)
The Development of Biotechnologies for the Environment	597	(28)
Walter Marconi
Introduction	597	(2)
Enzymatic Technologies	599	(11)
Productive Technologies That Employ Plant Enzymes and Cells	610	(3)
Biotechnology and Refining Processes	613	(3)
Bioproduction of Environmental Interest	616	(6)
Conclusions	622	(1)
References	623	(2)
Biological Depuration	625	(14)
Robert L. Irvine
Lisa I. Larson
David A. Irvine
Thimothy J. Irvine
Camille A. Irvine
Historical Background	625	(2)
Biodegradation	627	(1)
Minimum Essentials of Biochemistry	628	(1)
Stoichiometry and Kinetics	629	(2)
Process of Biological Destruction	631	(1)
Engineered Systems for Biological Depuration of Wastewater	631	(3)
Engineered Systems for Biological Depuration of Soils	634	(2)
Engineered Systems for Biological	636	(1)
References	637	(2)
SECTION IV MAN IN A THREATENED ENVIRONMENT
The Gap between Rich and Poor: How Economic Inequities Threaten Biodiversity	639	(20)
Richard B. Primack
Introduction	639	(1)
The Limits of Biological Resources	640	(1)
Population, Poverty and Biological Diversity	641	(5)
Links between Industry and Destruction Of Biodiversity	646	(4)
The Gap between Rich and Poor	650	(2)
International Development Banks and Ecosystem Damage	652	(2)
Global Efforts to Protect Biological Diversity	654	(1)
Conclusions	655	(1)
References	656	(3)
The Environment and International Institutions	659	(20)
Bernd Von Droste
Introduction	659	(2)
The Way to a Coherent Environmental Policy	661	(7)
Thematic Approach to the Institutional Framework Made by Treaty Arrangements	668	(9)
Conclusion	677	(1)
References	678	(1)
The Myth of Sustainable Development	679	(28)
Bruno Trezza
Introduction	679	(2)
Equivalent Energy from Global Photosynthesis and from Petroleum, Coal and Gas	681	(1)
The State of Theory	682	(5)
Current Tools for Change and Defense of the Environment	687	(3)
Human Activities and the Ecosystem	690	(6)
Conclusion	696	(2)
References	698	(5)
PART THREE BIOETHICS
Introduction to Part Three	703	(4)
Luigi De Carli
Stefano Rodota
SECTION I BIOETHICS: HISTORY AND SIGNIFICANCE
Genealogy and Levels of Ethics	707	(22)
Henri Atlan
The Sources of Ethics: Religion and Moral Philosophy	707	(3)
Particular Situations versus General Principles	710	(3)
Humanization through Society	713	(1)
Pleasure and Pain: The First Level of Ethics	713	(1)
Cognitive Functions and Ethical Competence versus Ethical Performance	714	(1)
The Philosophical Path	715	(2)
The Practical Sociocultural Path	717	(1)
The Second Level: Strategies to Defer	718	(1)
The Third Level: Moral Judgements on Moral Norms	719	(2)
Modified States of Consciousness and the Sacred: A Source of Unity and Diversity	721	(2)
Underdetermination of Theories by the Facts: A Help in Reaching Agreement	723	(2)
Return to the First Level: The Minimal Moral of Indignation	725	(1)
Conclusion	725	(1)
References	726	(3)
Bioethical Problems and Ethical Alternatives	729	(16)
Carlo Augusto Viano
The Crisis of Medicine	729	(2)
The Revolt against the Doctor	731	(2)
The Start of Life	733	(3)
The End of Life	736	(1)
Ethics of Life and Ethics of Dignity	737	(1)
Genetics	738	(2)
New Problems	740	(1)
Two Ethical Prospects	741	(2)
References	743	(2)
Bioethics and Biotechnology	745	(16)
Remo Bodei
The Impact of Biotechnologies	745	(2)
Bioethics: A Branch of Philosophical Ethics	747	(1)
Antidestiny	747	(2)
The New Dilemmas Created by Biotechnologies	749	(2)
Stories of in Vitro Fertilizations and Artificial Inseminations	751	(3)
Egg Cell Donation	754	(1)
The Mother-Grandmother and the Aunt-Mother	754	(1)
The Determination of Sex	755	(1)
Parthenogenesis and Cloning	756	(1)
Organ Transplanting	757	(1)
Conclusions	758	(1)
References	758	(3)
SECTION II BIOETHICS, GENETICS AND MEDICINE
The Human Genome Project	761	(16)
Alberto Piazza
The Human Genome Project	761	(1)
The State of the Art	762	(2)
Short-Term Objectives	764	(4)
Problems and Perspectives	768	(2)
Genetic Predisposition in Human Behavior	770	(2)
The Knowledge of the Human Genome and the Insurance System	772	(1)
Identification through DNA for Forensic Purposes	772	(1)
Bioethical Implications	773	(2)
References	775	(2)
Genetic Information: Collection, Access and Use	777	(14)
Carlos M. Romeo-Casabona
Genetic Information: A New and Peculiar Subject of Legal Protection	777	(2)
The Protection of Privacy and Genetic Data	779	(1)
Protection of Manifestations of Privacy	779	(2)
Extensions of the General Normative Framework on Protection of Privacy and Personal Data to the Specific Protection of Privacy and Genetic Data	781	(2)
The Right Not to Know	783	(1)
Exceptions to Confidentiality	784	(1)
Specific Cases	784	(2)
Genetic Analysis and Insurance Contracts	786	(1)
Genetic Analysis in Other Social Fields	787	(1)
Some Criteria for Regulation	787	(1)
References	788	(3)
Genetic Screening	791	(18)
Antonio Cao
Maria Cristina Rosatelli
Introduction	791	(1)
Newborn Screening	792	(2)
Principal Diseases Subject to Newborn Screening	794	(3)
Heterozygote Screening	797	(2)
Characteristics of Heterozygote Screening Programs	799	(4)
Genetic Screening in Pregnant Women	803	(2)
Conclusion	805	(1)
References	806	(3)
Genetic Counseling	809	(20)
Angus Clarke
Process of Genetic Counseling	809	(5)
Genetic Testing	814	(3)
Population Genetic Screening	817	(4)
Goals of Genetic Counseling	821	(1)
Recurrent Issues in Genetic Counseling Practice	822	(4)
Concluding Remarks	826	(1)
References	826	(3)
The Body and the Market	829	(16)
Gilbert Hottois
Dignity of and Market for the Human Body	829	(1)
Transplants of Organs	830	(2)
Tissue Banks	832	(2)
Patentability of Inventions That Presuppose the Use of Elements Coming from Human Bodies	834	(3)
The Euro-French Model and the Global American ``Threat''	837	(3)
Beyond the Therapeutic Horizon	840	(2)
Finding Good Fictions	842	(1)
References	842	(3)
Organ and Tissue Transplants	845	(16)
Giovanni Berlinguer
The History and Meaning of Transplants	845	(2)
The Human Body: Emphasis on Its Value and Commercialization	847	(1)
The Commerce and Donation of Blood	848	(1)
Definition and Ascertainment of Death	849	(1)
Who Decides about the Body	850	(2)
Organizational Ethics	852	(1)
The Allotment of Organs and Division of Resources	852	(2)
Relation between Body and Market	854	(1)
Ethical and Practical Perspectives	855	(3)
References	858	(3)
Informed Consent	861	(20)
Christian Hick
Introduction	861	(1)
History of Informed Consent	861	(6)
Informed Consent in Medical Research	867	(1)
The Ethical Meaning of Informed Consent	868	(4)
The Philosophical Background of Informed Consent	872	(2)
Special Issues	874	(2)
Genetic Testing	876	(1)
Expanding Physicians' Obligations	877	(1)
References	877	(4)
SECTION III THE FRONTIERS OF BIOETHICS
A Comparative Overview of Medically Assisted Procreation	881	(16)
Bartha M. Knoppers
Lori Luther
Introduction	881	(1)
International and Regional Positions	882	(1)
National Positions: Clinical Aspects	883	(7)
National Positions: Research Aspects	890	(4)
Conclusion	894	(1)
References	894	(3)
Human Preimplantation Embryo Research	897	(18)
Matteo Adinolfi
Joyce Harper
Introduction	897	(1)
Early Morphogenesis	898	(2)
Activation of the Zygotic Genes	900	(3)
Origin of Chromosomal Disorders	903	(2)
Chromosomal Disorders in Preimplantion Embryos	905	(3)
Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis of Inherited Disorders	908	(1)
Confined Placental Mosaicism	909	(1)
Genetic Imprinting and X Inactivation	910	(1)
ICSI	911	(1)
Fetal Gene Therapy	912	(1)
Embryonic Mortality after Implantation	912	(1)
Conclusion	913	(1)
References	913	(2)
Gene Therapy	915	(18)
Mauro Giacca
Arturo Falaschi
Introduction	915	(1)
Gene Transfer Techniques	916	(6)
Therapeutic Genes	922	(2)
Strategies for the Administration of Therapeutic Genes	924	(1)
Clinical Trials	925	(4)
Ethical Considerations	929	(1)
Conclusions	930	(1)
References	931	(2)
The End of Life	933	(12)
Maurice A. M. de Wachter
Life and Death	933	(3)
Medical Practices at the End of Life	936	(2)
Social and Legal Trends Regarding Euthanasia	938	(2)
Ethical Issues Concerning Death and Dying	940	(1)
Western Religious and Secular Views of Death and Dying	941	(1)
Ars Moriendi Today	942	(1)
References	942	(3)
SECTION IV ETHICS AND INTERVENTION IN THE LIVING WORLD
Biotechnologies, Ecology and Ethics	945	(16)
Dietmar Mieth
Introduction	945	(2)
Ethical Arguments in Favor of Genetic Engineering	947	(1)
General Considerations on the Ethical Limits of Genetic Engineering	947	(2)