Functional Food Carbohydrates

by Biliaderis; Costas G.

• ISBN13: 9780849318221
• ISBN10: 084931822X
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-10-10
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Historically, most of the research into carbohydrates as functional ingredients focused on the improvement of appearance, taste, mouth-feel, and stability. The growing interest in functional foods, however, is demanding a critical look at the beneficial nonnutritive effects of carbohydrates on human health. Furthermore, there is a need to establish definitive relations among the structure, physical property, and physiological function of these bioactive compounds. As more of the benefit and functional versatility of carbohydrates is revealed, it is clear that any future research and recommendation must be based on a solid synthesis of multidisciplinary findings including epidemiological, metabolic, and clinical nutritional data.Through clinical and epidemiological studies, Functional Food Carbohydrates addresses the specific classes of carbohydrates that seem to exert health-enhancing effects. The text begins with in-depth treatments of the chemistry, physical properties, processing technology, safety and health benefits of a variety of carbohydrates including cereal beta-glucans, microbial polysaccharides, chitosan, arabinoxylans, resistant starch, and other polysaccharides of plant origin. The authors then discuss the physiological and metabolic effects that a variety of carbohydrates have on specific chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, and various gastrointestinal disorders. The final chapters discuss the regulatory and technological aspects of using carbohydrates as functional foods. Specifically, the authors consider the safety and efficacy of pre-, pro-, and synbiotics, and the potential use of carbohydrates as delivery vehicles for other bioactive compounds.With contributions from experts specializing in food chemistry and technology, as well as human nutrition and physiology, this text illuminates the link between the behavior of carbohydrate compounds and their beneficial end-result on human health.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Cereal β-Glucans: Structures, Physical Properties, and Physiological Functions	1	(72)
Athina Lazaridou, Costas G. Biliaderis, and Marta S. Izydorczyk
1.1 Introduction	2	(1)
1.2 Occurrence	3	(2)
1.3 Extractability	5	(2)
1.4 Extraction, Isolation, and Purification	7	(4)
1.5 Enrichment of Cereal Grains in β-Glucan and Large-Scale Production of β-Glucan Concentrates and Isolates	11	(10)
1.5.1 Dry Processing	11	(6)
1.5.2 Wet Processing	17	(4)
1.6 Structural Features	21	(5)
1.7 Physical Properties	26	(15)
1.7.1 Solubility — Solution Behavior	26	(5)
1.7.2 Gelation — Cryogelation	31	(6)
1.7.3 Processing Effects on Physical Properties	37	(4)
1.8 Applications in Food Systems	41	(5)
1.8.1 Cereal-Based Foods	41	(3)
1.8.2 Applications as Fat Mimetics, Stabilizers, and Thickening Agents	44	(2)
1.9 Nutritional Impact—Health Effects	46	(12)
1.9.1 Hypocholesterolemic Effect	47	(4)
1.9.2 Hypoglycemic Effect	51	(1)
1.9.3 Determinants of Hypocholesterolemic and Hypoglycemic Effects	51	(6)
1.9.4 Other Physiological Effects	57	(1)
References	58	(15)
Chapter 2 Resistant Starch	73	(24)
Donald B. Thompson
2.1 Introduction: What Is Resistant Starch?	73	(1)
2.2 In Vitro Analysis of RS	74	(1)
2.3 In Vitro Isolation of RS	75	(1)
2.4 The Nature of RS	76	(1)
2.5 Sources of RS	76	(2)
2.6 RS and Dietary Fiber	78	(1)
2.7 What Is the Fate of RS in the Gut?	78	(1)
2.8 Nutritional Importance of RS	79	(2)
2.9 Manufacturing of RS-Containing Ingredients	81	(7)
2.9.1 Type 1 RS	81	(1)
2.9.2 Type 2 RS	81	(3)
2.9.2.1 RS Levels in Untreated Granular Starch	81	(2)
2.9.2.2 Enhancement of RS Levels in Granular Starch	83	(1)
2.9.3 Type 3 RS	84	(4)
2.9.4 Type 4 RS	88	(1)
2.10 Conclusions	88	(1)
References	89	(8)
Chapter 3 Konjac Glucomannan	97	(30)
K. Nishinari and S. Gao
3.1 Introduction	97	(1)
3.2 Structure and Molecular Weight of Konjac Glucomannan	98	(2)
3.2.1 The Man/Glc Ratio	98	(1)
3.2.2 Fractionation	98	(1)
3.2.3 Molecular Weight	99	(1)
3.3 Solution Properties of Konjac Glucomannan	100	(4)
3.3.1 Intrinsic Viscosity	100	(1)
3.3.2 Zero-Shear Specific Viscosity	100	(2)
3.3.3 Dynamic Viscoelasticity of KGM Dispersions	102	(1)
3.3.4 Other Solution Properties	103	(1)
3.4 Gelation of KGM in the Presence of Alkali	104	(6)
3.4.1 Gelation Kinetics of KGM with Different Molecular Weights	104	(6)
3.5 Mixture of Konjac with Other Polysaccharides	110	(5)
3.5.1 Konjac—Xanthan Mixtures	110	(1)
3.5.2 Konjac—K-Carrageenan Mixtures	111	(2)
3.5.3 Konjac—Gellan Mixtures	113	(1)
3.5.4 Konjac—Acetan Mixtures	114	(1)
3.5.5 Konjac—Starch Mixtures	114	(1)
3.6 Solid-State Properties of Konjac Glucomannan	115	(5)
3.6.1 Dielectric, Viscoelastic, and Broad-Line NMR Studies of Konjac Glucomannan Films	115	(2)
3.6.2 Biodegradable Material	117	(3)
3.7 Physiological Functions of KGM	120	(3)
References	123	(4)
Chapter 4 Seed Polysaccharide Gums	127	(40)
Steve W. Cui, Shinya Ikeda, and Michael N.A. Eskin
4.1 Introduction	128	(1)
4.2 Seed Gums as Food Reserve: Galactomannans	129	(9)
4.2.1 Locust Bean Gum	130	(3)
4.2.1.1 Source	130	(1)
4.2.1.2 Method of Production	130	(1)
4.2.1.3 Chemistry and Structural Features	130	(1)
4.2.1.4 Functional Properties and Applications	131	(1)
4.2.1.5 Physiological Properties and Health Benefits	132	(1)
4.2.2 Guar Gum	133	(2)
4.2.2.1 Source	133	(1)
4.2.2.2 Method of Production	133	(1)
4.2.2.3 Chemistry and Structural Features	133	(1)
4.2.2.4 Functional Properties and Applications	133	(2)
4.2.2.5 Physiological Properties and Health Benefits	135	(1)
4.2.3 Tara Gum	135	(2)
4.2.3.1 Source	135	(1)
4.2.3.2 Method of Production	136	(1)
4.2.3.3 Chemistry and Structural Features	136	(1)
4.2.3.4 Functional Properties and Applications	136	(1)
4.2.3.5 Physiological Properties and Health Benefits	136	(1)
4.2.4 Fenugreek Gum	137	(1)
4.2.4.1 Source	137	(1)
4.2.4.2 Method of Production	137	(1)
4.2.4.3 Chemistry and Structural Features	137	(1)
4.2.4.4 Functional Properties and Applications	137	(1)
4.2.4.5 Physiological Properties and Health Benefits	138	(1)
4.3 Seed Gums as Cell Wall Materials	138	(7)
4.3.1 Xyloglucan from Tamarind Seed	138	(5)
4.3.1.1 Source	138	(1)
4.3.1.2 Methods of Production	139	(1)
4.3.1.3 Chemistry and Structural Features	139	(2)
4.3.1.4 Functional Properties and Applications	141	(1)
4.3.1.5 Physiological Properties and Health Benefits	142	(1)
4.3.2 Soluble Soybean Polysaccharides (Soya Fiber)	143	(2)
4.3.2.1 Source	143	(1)
4.3.2.2 Method of Production	143	(1)
4.3.2.3 Chemistry and Structural Features	143	(1)
4.3.2.4 Functional Properties and Applications	143	(2)
4.3.2.5 Physiological Properties and Health Benefits	145	(1)
4.4 Gums from Seed Coat: Mucilage	145	(12)
4.4.1 Psyllium Mucilage	145	(3)
4.4.1.1 Source	145	(1)
4.4.1.2 Method of Production	146	(1)
4.4.1.3 Chemistry and Structural Features	146	(1)
4.4.1.4 Functional Properties and Applications	146	(1)
4.4.1.5 Physiological Effects and Health Benefits	147	(1)
4.4.2 Flaxseed Gum	148	(4)
4.4.2.1 Source	148	(1)
4.4.2.2 Method of Production	148	(1)
4.4.2.3 Chemistry and Structural Features	149	(1)
4.4.2.4 Functional Properties and Applications	150	(1)
4.4.2.5 Physiological Properties and Health Benefits	151	(1)
4.4.3 Yellow Mustard Gum	152	(16)
4.4.3.1 Source	152	(1)
4.4.3.2 Method of Production	152	(1)
4.4.3.3 Chemistry and Structural Features	152	(1)
4.4.3.4 Functional Properties and Applications	153	(3)
4.4.3.5 Physiological Properties and Health Benefits	156	(1)
4.5 Conclusions	157	(1)
References	158	(9)
Chapter 5 Microbial Polysaccharides	167	(48)
Ioannis Giavasis and Costas G. Biliaderis
5.1 Introduction	167	(1)
5.2 Types and Sources of Functional Polysaccharides	168	(9)
5.2.1 Glucans	168	(5)
5.2.2 EPS from Lactic Acid Bacteria	173	(1)
5.2.3 Other Microbial Polysaccharides	174	(3)
5.3 Production	177	(11)
5.3.1 Biosynthesis	177	(4)
5.3.2 Bioprocess Conditions	181	(5)
5.3.2.1 Composition of the Process Medium	182	(1)
5.3.2.2 Temperature	183	(1)
5.3.2.3 pH	184	(1)
5.3.2.4 Agitation, Aeration, and Dissolved Oxygen	185	(1)
5.3.3 Isolation and Purification	186	(2)
5.4 Physiological Functions	188	(6)
5.4.1 Antitumor—Immunomodulatory Effects	188	(4)
5.4.2 Antimicrobial—Antiviral Effects	192	(1)
5.4.3 Hypocholesterolemic—Hypoglycemic and Other Effects	193	(1)
5.5 Structure—Activity Relationships	194	(5)
5.6 Future Perspectives	199	(1)
References	200	(15)
Chapter 6 Chitosan as a Dietary Supplement and a Food Technology Agent	215	(34)
Riccardo A.A. Muzzarelli and Corrado Muzzarelli
6.1 Introduction	215	(2)
6.2 Chitin as a Food Component	217	(1)
6.3 Characteristics of Dietary Chitosans	218	(1)
6.4 Modern Applications of Chitosan in Food Sciences	219	(6)
6.4.1 Antibacterial Activity	220	(1)
6.4.2 Antifungal Activity	221	(2)
6.4.3 Edible Films and Textural Agents	223	(1)
6.4.4 Control of Enzymatic Browning in Fruits	224	(1)
6.4.5 Clarification and De-acidification of Fruit Juices	224	(1)
6.4.6 Recovery of Solids from Food Processing Wastes	224	(1)
6.5 Chitosan as a Nutraceutical	225	(12)
6.5.1 Hypercholesterolemi a	225	(4)
6.5.1.1 Cholesterol Lowering in Animals	226	(1)
6.5.1.2 Cholesterol Lowering in Humans	227	(1)
6.5.1.3 Mechanism of Cholesterol Lowering	227	(2)
6.5.2 Current Views on Side Aspects	229	(1)
6.5.3 Overweight	230	(1)
6.5.4 Osteoarthritis	231	(21)
6.5.4.1 Depolymerization of Chitosan	233	(1)
6.5.4.2 Chitosan Depolymerization Products	234	(1)
6.5.4.3 Mechanism of Action	235	(2)
6.5.4.4 Product Quality	237	(1)
6.6 Conclusions	237	(1)
Acknowledgments	237	(1)
References	238	(11)
Chapter 7 Arabinoxylans: Technologically and Nutritionally Functional Plant Polysaccharides	249	(42)
Marta S. Izydorczyk and Costas G. Biliaderis
7.1 Introduction	250	(1)
7.2 Arabinoxylans as Constituents of Agricultural Crops	250	(2)
7.3 Extraction, Isolation, and Purification of Arabinoxylans	252	(7)
7.3.1 Aqueous Extraction	252	(1)
7.3.2 Strategies to Extract Arabinoxylans from Agricultural By-Products	253	(3)
7.3.3 Arabinoxylan-Enriched Fractions Obtained by Physical Grain Fractionation	256	(2)
7.3.4 Production of Xylooligosaccharides	258	(1)
7.4 Molecular Structure of Arabinoxylans	259	(9)
7.4.1 Monosaccharide Residues and Glycosidic Linkages in Arabinoxylan Structures	259	(2)
7.4.2 Ferulic Acid Residues and Intermolecular Cross-Linking	261	(3)
7.4.3 Structural Heterogeneity and Polydispersity of Arabinoxylans	264	(3)
7.4.4 Molecular Weight	267	(1)
7.5 Biosynthesis of Arabinoxylans	268	(2)
7.6 Physicochemical Properties of Arabinoxylans	270	(5)
7.6.1 Conformation of Arabinoxylan Chains in Solids and Solutions	270	(1)
7.6.2 Viscosity of Arabinoxylan Solutions	271	(1)
7.6.3 Oxidative Cross-Linking	272	(2)
7.6.4 Physicochemical Properties of Arabinoxylan Gels	274	(1)
7.7 Arabinoxylans as Technologically Functional Food Ingredients	275	(2)
7.8 Arabinoxylans as Nutritionally Functional Food Ingredients	277	(6)
References	283	(8)
Chapter 8 Carbohydrates and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease	291	(30)
Gunilla Önning
8.1 Introduction	291	(1)
8.2 Cardiovascular Diseases	292	(4)
8.2.1 Blood Lipids, Apolipoproteins, Blood Pressure, and Hemostatic Factors	293	(3)
8.3 Diet and Cardiovascular Diseases	296	(15)
8.3.1 Mono- and Disaccharides	296	(1)
8.3.2 Oligosaccharides	297	(1)
8.3.3 Polysaccharides: Dietary Fiber	298	(25)
8.3.3.1 Observational Studies	298	(2)
8.3.3.2 Intervention Studies	300	(8)
8.3.3.3 Cholesterol-Lowering Mechanisms of Dietary Fiber	308	(1)
8.3.3.4 Cholesterol-Lowering Effects of Dietary Fiber in Comparison with Other Food Components	309	(2)
8.4 Health Claims Related to Carbohydrates and CVD	311	(1)
8.5 Summary and Conclusions	312	(1)
References	313	(8)
Chapter 9 Carbohydrates and Obesity	321	(50)
Gail Woodward-Lopez, Dana E. Gerstein, Lorrene D. Ritchie, and Sharon E. Fleming
9.1 Introduction	322	(1)
9.2 Mechanisms by Which Dietary Carbohydrates Affect Energy Balance	323	(6)
9.2.1 Satiation and Satiety	323	(1)
9.2.2 Energy Density	324	(1)
9.2.3 Palatability and Taste Preference	325	(2)
9.2.4 Dietary Fat: Carbohydrate Ratio	327	(1)
9.2.5 Metabolic Fuel Partitioning	327	(1)
9.2.6 Glycemic Index	328	(1)
9.2.7 Summary of Mechanisms	329	(1)
9.3 Secular Trends: Changes in Carbohydrate Intake during the Time Period That Obesity Rates Have Risen	329	(3)
9.3.1 Total Carbohydrates	329	(1)
9.3.2 Sugars and Refined Carbohydrates	329	(1)
9.3.3 Fiber	330	(2)
9.4 Observational Studies: The Relationship between the Intake of Carbohydrates and Overweight	332	(10)
9.4.1 Longitudinal Studies	332	(3)
9.4.2 Cross-Sectional Studies	335	(7)
9.4.3 Summary of Observational Studies (Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional)	342	(1)
9.5 Treatment Studies: The Role of Dietary Carbohydrates in Weight Loss and Prevention of Weight Regain	342	(6)
9.5.1 Low- vs. High-Carbohydrate Diets for Weight Loss	343	(2)
9.5.2 Low- vs. High-Carbohydrate Diets for Prevention of Weight Regain	345	(1)
9.5.3 Type of Carbohydrate for Weight Loss	346	(1)
9.5.4 Other Health Considerations of a High-Carbohydrate Diet	347	(1)
9.5.5 Other Health Considerations of a Low-Carbohydrate Diet	347	(1)
9.6 Prevention Studies: The Role of Dietary Carbohydrates in Preventing Weight Gain	348	(13)
9.6.1 Low- vs. High-Carbohydrate Diet for Prevention of Weight Gain	348	(1)
9.6.2 Type of Carbohydrates for Prevention of Weight Gain	349	(11)
9.6.3 Summary of Treatment and Prevention Studies	360	(1)
9.7 Conclusions	361	(2)
Acknowledgments	363	(1)
References	364	(7)
Chapter 10 Dietary Carbohydrates and Risk of Cancer	371	(16)
Joanne Slavin
10.1 Introduction	371	(1)
10.2 Carbohydrates in Foods	372	(2)
10.3 Links between Cancer and Carbohydrate Intake	374	(5)
10.3.1 Sugars and Digestible Carbohydrates	374	(1)
10.3.2 Dietary Fiber	375	(4)
10.4 Insulin and Colon Cancer	379	(1)
10.5 Intervention Studies	379	(1)
10.6 Breast Cancer	380	(1)
10.7 Other Cancer Sites	381	(1)
10.8 Addition of Carbohydrates to Functional Foods to Reduce Cancer Risk	381	(1)
References	382	(5)
Chapter 11 The Role of Carbohydrates in the Prevention and Management of Type 2 Diabetes	387	(26)
Kaisa Poutanen, David Laaksonen, Karin Autio, Hannu Mykkänen, and Leo Niskanen
11.1 Introduction	388	(1)
11.2 Glucose and Insulin Metabolism in Relation to Dietary Carbohydrates	388	(1)
11.3 Pathogenesis of the Metabolic Syndrome and Type 2 Diabetes	389	(2)
11.4 Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load	391	(1)
11.5 Low-GI Carbohydrates in the Treatment of Diabetes	392	(1)
11.5.1 Medium- to Long-Term Studies	392	(1)
11.6 Low-GI Carbohydrates and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes	393	(2)
11.6.1 Epidemiological Studies	393	(1)
11.6.2 Postprandial Studies: Second-Meal Effects	394	(1)
11.6.3 Medium- to Long-Term Studies	394	(1)
11.7 Dietary Fiber in the Treatment of Hyperglycemia in Type 2 Diabetes	395	(2)
11.7.1 Postprandial Studies	396	(1)
11.7.2 Medium- to Long-Term Studies	396	(1)
11.8 Dietary Fiber and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes	397	(2)
11.8.1 Epidemiological Studies	397	(1)
11.8.2 Postprandial Studies	398	(1)
11.8.3 Medium- to Long-Term Studies	398	(1)
11.9 Development of Carbohydrate Foods and Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes	399	(4)
11.9.1 Use of Dietary Fiber	399	(1)
11.9.2 Potential of Bioactive Components	400	(1)
11.9.3 Use of Predictive In Vitro Methods	400	(1)
11.9.4 Tailoring of Food Structure	401	(2)
11.10 Conclusions	403	(1)
References	403	(10)
Chapter 12 Carbohydrates and Mineral Metabolism	413	(22)
David D. Kitts
12.1 Introduction	413	(1)
12.2 Calcium and Magnesium Homeostasis	414	(2)
12.3 Carbohydrates and Mineral Bioavailability and Utilization	416	(2)
12.3.1 Nonfiber Carbohydrate Sources	416	(1)
12.3.2 Dietary Fiber Carbohydrate Sources	417	(1)
12.4 Soluble Fiber Sources and Mineral Bioavailability	418	(8)
12.4.1 Inulin and Fructooligosaccharides	418	(3)
12.4.2 Resistant Starch	421	(2)
12.4.3 Pectin	423	(1)
12.4.4 Gums	424	(1)
12.4.5 Polydextrose	425	(1)
12.4.6 Psyllium	425	(1)
12.5 Insoluble Fiber and Mineral Bioavailability	426	(3)
12.5.1 Cellulose	426	(1)
12.5.2 Wheat Bran	426	(2)
12.5.3 Maillard Reaction Products	428	(1)
12.6 Conclusions	429	(1)
References	429	(6)
Chapter 13 Dietary Carbohydrates as Mood and Performance Modulators	435	(36)
Larry Christensen
13.1 Introduction	435	(2)
13.2 Hypothesized Metabolic Determinants Mediating the Behavioral Effect of Carbohydrates	437	(4)
13.2.1 The Relationship between Carbohydrates and Serotonin	437	(3)
13.2.2 The Relationship between Carbohydrates and Endogenous Opioids	440	(1)
13.3 Carbohydrates and Mood in Emotionally Distressed Individuals	441	(11)
13.3.1 Carbohydrate Cravings	442	(2)
13.3.2 Carbohydrates and Seasonal Affective Disorder	444	(2)
13.3.3 Carbohydrates and Mood in Obese Individuals	446	(2)
13.3.4 Carbohydrates, Mood, and Premenstrual Symptoms	448	(2)
13.3.5 Carbohydrates and Major Depression	450	(2)
13.4 The Effect of Carbohydrates on Healthy Adults	452	(8)
13.4.1 Carbohydrates and Mood in Healthy Adults	452	(5)
13.4.2 Carbohydrates and Performance in Healthy Adults	457	(3)
13.5 Summary and Conclusions	460	(3)
References	463	(8)
Chapter 14 Carbohydrates and Gastrointestinal Tract Function	471	(8)
Barbara O. Schneeman
14.1 Introduction	471	(1)
14.2 Gastrointestinal Function	472	(3)
14.2.1 Oral Cavity	472	(1)
14.2.2 Stomach	472	(1)
14.2.3 Small Intestine	473	(1)
14.2.4 Large Intestine	474	(1)
14.3 Emerging Areas	475	(1)
References	475	(4)
Chapter 15 Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics: Functional Ingredients for Microbial Management Strategies	479	(32)
G.C.M. Rouzaud
15.1 Overview	480	(1)
15.2 Introduction	480	(1)
15.3 Overview of Probiotic Concept	481	(4)
15.3.1 Types of Probiotic Products	482	(1)
15.3.2 Survival of Probiotics Strains	482	(1)
15.3.3 Probiotic Persistence: Dose Effect	483	(1)
15.3.4 Transfer of Antimicrobial Resistance	483	(2)
15.3.5 Safety of Probiotics	485	(1)
15.4 Overview of Prebiotic Concept	485	(4)
15.4.1 Ease of Use of Prebiotics	488	(1)
15.4.2 Side Effects	488	(1)
15.4.3 Dose Effect	488	(1)
15.4.4 Purity and Safety of Prebiotics	488	(1)
15.4.5 GRAS Status and Persistence of Effect	489	(1)
15.5 Overview of Synbiotic Concept	489	(1)
15.5.1 Type of Synbiotic	489	(1)
15.5.2 Synbiotic Efficacy	489	(1)
15.6 Determining Efficacy	489	(5)
15.6.1 In Vitro Systems	489	(3)
15.6.2 Animal Models	492	(1)
15.6.3 Ex Vivo Models	492	(1)
15.6.4 Human Trials	492	(1)
15.6.5 New Molecular Tools for Analyzing Gut Microflora (Biomarkers)	493	(1)
15.7 Evidence for the Effect of Pro-, Pre-, and Synbiotics in the Maintenance of Health	494	(8)
15.7.1 Infants and the Elderly	494	(2)
15.7.2 Immune Function	496	(1)
15.7.3 Lipid and Energy Metabolism	496	(2)
15.7.4 Mineral and Vitamin Absorption	498	(1)
15.7.5 Evidence for the Effect of Pro-, Pre-, and Synbiotics in Human Diseases	498	(17)
15.7.5.1 Acute Disorders	498	(2)
15.7.5.2 Chronic Disorders	500	(2)
15.8 Conclusions	502	(1)
References	502	(9)
Chapter 16 Potential Use of Carbohydrates as Stabilizers and Delivery Vehicles of Bioactive Substances in Foods	511	(16)
Pirkko Forssell, Päivi Myllärinen, Piia Hakala, and Kaisa Poutanen
16.1 Introduction	511	(1)
16.2 Microencapsulation Technologies	512	(3)
16.3 Carbohydrates as Encapsulating Matrices	515	(7)
16.3.1 Functionality of Carbohydrates in Trigger Events	515	(1)
16.3.2 Starch	516	(2)
16.3.3 Pectins	518	(1)
16.3.4 Other Polysaccharides	519	(1)
16.3.5 Maltodextrins, Syrups, and Sugars	520	(1)
16.3.6 Starch Derivatives	521	(1)
16.4 Future	522	(1)
References	522	(5)
Chapter 17 Food Regulations: Health Claims for Foods Fortified with Carbohydrates or Other Nutraceuticals	527	(34)
Jerzy Zawistowski
17.1 Introduction	528	(1)
17.2 Definitions	529	(1)
17.3 Japanese Functional Foods: Tokuho System	530	(4)
17.4 U.S. Regulatory Framework for Functional Foods	534	(9)
17.4.1 Food Safety: Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS)	534	(1)
17.4.2 Health Claims	535	(8)
17.4.2.1 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA)	535	(6)
17.4.2.2 U.S. FDA Modernization Act	541	(1)
17.4.2.3 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA)	541	(2)
17.5 Canadian Approach to Regulate Functional Foods	543	(5)
17.5.1 Health Claims for Functional Foods	544	(2)
17.5.1.1 Product-Specific Health Claims for Foods	545	(1)
17.5.1.2 Foods for Special Dietary Use	545	(1)
17.5.1.3 Generic Health Claims	546	(1)
17.5.2 Novel Foods	546	(1)
17.5.3 Natural Health Products Regulations	547	(1)
17.6 European Union Regulatory Initiative for Functional Foods	548	(7)
17.6.1 Novel Foods	548	(5)
17.6.1.1 Novel Food Authorization in the EU	552	(1)
17.6.1.2 Fast-Track Approval Procedure	552	(1)
17.6.1.3 Labeling Requirements	553	(1)
17.6.2 Health Claims Made on Foods: EU Proposal	553	(2)
17.7 Conclusions	555	(1)
References	556	(5)
Index	561