Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

by Huettel, Scott A.; Song, Allen W.; McCarthy, Gregory

• ISBN13: 9780878932887
• ISBN10: 0878932887
• Edition: CD
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2004-04-01
• Publisher: Sinauer Associates Inc

Table of Contents

Preface	p. xiii
An Introduction to fMRI	p. 1
What Is fMRI?	p. 2
Why Image Brain Function?	p. 4
Key Concepts	p. 6
History of fMRI	p. 11
Early Studies of Magnetic Resonance	p. 11
What is fMRI Used For?	p. 12
NMR in Bulk Matter: Bloch and Purcell	p. 15
The First MR images	p. 17
Growth of MRI	p. 21
Organization of the Textbook	p. 22
Physical Bases of fMRI	p. 22
Principles of BOLD fMRI	p. 23
Design and Analysis of fMRI Experiments	p. 24
Applications and Future Directions	p. 25
Summary	p. 25
Suggested Readings	p. 26
Chapter References	p. 26
MRI Scanners	p. 27
How MRI Scanners Work	p. 27
Static Magnetic Field	p. 27
Radiofrequency Coils	p. 31
Gradient Coils	p. 34
Shimming Coils	p. 35
Computer Hardware and Software	p. 37
Experimental Control System	p. 37
Physiological Monitoring Equipment	p. 38
MRI Safety	p. 39
Effects of Static Magnetic Fields upon Human Physiology	p. 39
Outline of an fMRI Experiment	p. 40
Translation and Torsion	p. 44
Gradient Magnetic Field Effects	p. 45
Radiofrequency Field Effects	p. 46
Claustrophobia	p. 47
Acoustic Noise	p. 47
Summary	p. 48
Suggested Readings	p. 48
Chapter References	p. 48
Basic Principles of MR Signal Generation	p. 49
Overview of Key Concepts	p. 49
Nuclear Spins	p. 49
Spins within Magnetic Fields	p. 50
Magnetization of a Spin System	p. 53
Spin Excitation and Signal Reception	p. 53
Principles of MR Signal Generation	p. 55
Spins: Magnetic Moment	p. 55
Spins: Angular Momentum	p. 56
Spins within Magnetic Fields	p. 57
Spin Precession	p. 59
Magnetization of Spins in Bulk Matter	p. 62
Spin Excitation	p. 63
Signal Reception	p. 69
Spin Relaxation	p. 70
The Bloch Equation	p. 73
Summary	p. 73
Suggested Readings	p. 73
Basic Principles of MR Signal Formation	p. 75
Introduction	p. 75
Analysis of MR Signal	p. 76
Longitudinal Magnetization (M[subscript z])	p. 77
Solution for Transverse Magnetization (M[subscript xy])	p. 79
The MR Signal Equation	p. 81
Slice Selection, Spatial Encoding, and Image Reconstruction	p. 82
Slice Excitation	p. 87
2-D Spatial Encoding	p. 90
2-D Image Formation	p. 92
3-D Imaging	p. 93
Potential Problems in Image Formation	p. 94
Summary	p. 96
Suggested Readings	p. 97
MR Contrast Mechanisms and Pulse Sequences	p. 99
Static Contrasts and Related Pulse Sequences	p. 100
Proton-Density Contrast	p. 101
T[subscript 1] Contrast	p. 104
T[subscript 2] Contrast	p. 106
T[subscript 2] Contrast	p. 109
Motion-Weighted Contrast	p. 110
MR Angiography	p. 110
Diffusion-Weighted Contrast	p. 113
Perfusion-Weighted Contrast	p. 117
Fast Imaging Sequences for fMRI Image Acquisition	p. 120
Echo-Planar Imaging	p. 120
Spiral Imaging	p. 123
Summary	p. 126
Suggested Readings	p. 126
Chapter References	p. 126
From Neuronal to Hemodynamic Activity	p. 127
Neuronal Activity	p. 128
Ion Channels in Neurons	p. 130
Neurotransmitters and Action Potentials	p. 131
Cerebral Metabolism: Neuronal Energy Consumption	p. 133
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)	p. 134
The Vascular System of the Brain	p. 136
Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins	p. 138
Arterial and Venous Anatomy of the Human Brain	p. 139
Microcirculation	p. 142
Blood Flow	p. 143
Control of Blood Flow	p. 144
Effects of Increased Blood Flow upon Capillaries	p. 146
Neurogenic Control of Blood Flow	p. 147
Primer on Neuroanatomy	p. 149
Summary	p. 156
Suggested Readings	p. 156
Chapter References	p. 157
BOLD fMRI	p. 159
History of BOLD fMRI	p. 159
Discovery of BOLD Contrast	p. 160
The Coupling of Glucose Metabolism and Blood Flow	p. 162
Glucose and Oxygen Metabolism	p. 163
PET Imaging	p. 164
Watering the Garden for the Sake of One Thirsty Flower	p. 165
The Astrocyte-Neuron Lactate Shuttle Model	p. 166
The Initial Dip	p. 168
Transit Time and Oxygen Extraction	p. 169
Implications for BOLD fMRI	p. 170
The Growth of BOLD fMRI	p. 171
Evolution of Functional MRI	p. 171
Early fMRI Studies	p. 174
Components of the BOLD Hemodynamic Response	p. 176
Functional Studies Using Contrast Agents	p. 177
Summary	p. 181
Suggested Readings	p. 182
Chapter References	p. 183
Spatial and Temporal Properties of fMRI	p. 185
Spatial Resolution of fMRI
Terminology of fMRI	p. 186
Spatial Specificity in the Vascular System	p. 190
What Spatial Resolution Is Needed?	p. 193
Mapping of Ocular Dominance Columns Using fMRI	p. 194
Temporal Resolution of fMRI	p. 197
The Timing of Brain Events	p. 200
Effects of Stimulus Duration	p. 202
Relative Timing across Brain Regions	p. 204
Linearity of the Hemodynamic Response	p. 206
Properties of a Linear System	p. 207
Evidence for Rough Linearity	p. 209
Challenges to Linearity	p. 211
Using Refractory Effects to Study Neuronal Adaptation	p. 213
Summary	p. 214
Suggested Readings	p. 215
Chapter References	p. 215
Signal and Noise in fMRI	p. 217
Understanding Signal and Noise	p. 219
Signal and Noise Defined	p. 219
Functional SNR	p. 222
Sources of Noise in fMRI	p. 224
Thermal Noise	p. 225
System Noise	p. 227
Motion and Physiological Noise	p. 228
Non-Task-Related Neural Variability	p. 230
Behavioral and Cognitive Variability	p. 231
Improving Functional SNR through Experimental Design	p. 233
Intersubject Variability in the Hemodynamic Response	p. 234
Improving Functional SNR by Increasing Field Strength	p. 236
Raw SNR and Spatial Resolution	p. 237
Functional SNR and Spatial Extent	p. 238
Spatial Specificity	p. 239
Challenges of High-Field fMRI	p. 241
Improving Functional SNR through Signal Averaging	p. 242
Effects of Averaging on Estimation of the Hemodynamic Response	p. 242
Effects of Averaging on Detection of Active Voxels	p. 245
Power Analyses	p. 248
Alternatives to Signal Averaging	p. 249
Signal Averaging: Conclusions	p. 249
Summary	p. 249
Suggested Readings	p. 250
Chapter References	p. 250
Preprocessing of fMRI Data	p. 253
Quality Assurance	p. 254
Slice Acquisition Time Correction	p. 256
Head Motion	p. 258
Prevention of Head Motion	p. 261
Correction of Head Motion	p. 263
Distortion Correction	p. 266
Functional-Structural Coregistration and Normalization	p. 269
Functional-Structural Coregistration	p. 269
Spatial Normalization	p. 271
Spatial and Temporal Filtering	p. 274
Temporal Filtering	p. 275
Spatial Filtering	p. 276
Effects of Spatial Filtering on Functional SNR	p. 278
Summary	p. 279
Suggested Readings	p. 280
Chapter References	p. 280
Experimental Design	p. 283
Basic Principles of Experimental Design	p. 284
Setting Up a Good Research Hypothesis	p. 286
Are fMRI Data Correlational?	p. 288
Confounding Factors	p. 290
An Example of fMRI Experimental Design	p. 292
Blocked Designs	p. 294
Setting Up a Blocked Design	p. 295
Advantages and Disadvantages of Blocked Designs	p. 297
Baseline Activity in fMRI	p. 301
Event-Related Designs	p. 303
Early Event-Related fMRI Studies	p. 304
Principles of Event-Related fMRI	p. 307
Semirandom Designs	p. 310
Advantages and Disadvantages of Event-Related Designs	p. 311
Mixed Designs	p. 314
Summary	p. 317
Suggested Readings	p. 318
Chapter References	p. 319
Statistical Analysis	p. 321
Basic Statistical Tests	p. 323
The t-Test	p. 324
Correlation Analysis	p. 328
Fourier Analysis	p. 329
Displaying Statistical Results	p. 333
The General Linear Model	p. 336
Constructing a Design Matrix	p. 338
Modeling BOLD Signal Changes	p. 340
Additional Assumptions	p. 342
Corrections for Multiple Comparisons	p. 343
Data-Driven Analyses	p. 344
Random Field Theory	p. 346
Cluster-Size Thresholding	p. 347
Region-of-Interest Analyses	p. 349
Intersubject Analyses	p. 351
Real-Time Analysis in Presurgical Patients	p. 354
Summary	p. 355
Suggested Readings	p. 356
Chapter References	p. 357
Applications of fMRI	p. 359
Translational Research	p. 359
Studying Human-Specific Topic Areas	p. 362
Identifying Functional Relations among Brain Regions	p. 364
From Coactivation to Connectivity	p. 364
Methods for Connectivity Mapping in fMRI	p. 368
Topic Areas	p. 372
Attention	p. 372
Memory	p. 377
Executive Function	p. 380
Use of fMRI in Nonhuman Primates	p. 386
Consciousness	p. 389
Summary	p. 393
Suggested Readings	p. 393
Chapter References	p. 394
Advanced fMRI Methods	p. 399
Spatial Resolution and Spatial Fidelity	p. 400
Multiple-Channel Acquisition	p. 402
Susceptibility Compensation and Weighting	p. 405
Improving BOLD Contrast	p. 408
Non-BOLD Contrasts	p. 410
Spatial Connectivity	p. 414
Temporal Resolution	p. 416
Multiple-Channel Acquisition	p. 416
Partial k-Space Imaging	p. 417
Efficient k-Space Trajectories	p. 419
Improved Experimental Designs	p. 420
Direct MRI of Neuronal Activity	p. 422
Summary	p. 425
Suggested Readings	p. 425
Chapter References	p. 426
Converging Operations	p. 429
Cognitive Neuroscience	p. 429
Strategies for Research in Cognitive Neuroscience	p. 431
Changing Neuronal Activity	p. 432
Direct Cortical Stimulation	p. 432
Functional Consequences of Direct Cortical Stimulation	p. 434
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation	p. 436
Brain Lesions	p. 438
Combined Lesion and fMRI Studies	p. 440
Probabilistic Brain Atlases	p. 441
Brain Imaging and Genomics	p. 442
Measuring Neuronal Activity	p. 443
Electrogenesis	p. 444
Single-Unit Recording	p. 447
Limitations of Single-Unit Recording	p. 449
Field Potentials	p. 450
Localizing the Neural Generators of Field Potentials	p. 451
Intracranially Recorded Field Potentials	p. 453
Localization of Function Using Field Potential Recordings	p. 454
Neuronal Activity and BOLD fMRI	p. 458
Scalp-Recorded Field Potentials	p. 460
Magnetoencephalography	p. 462
Advice for the Beginning Researcher	p. 463
Summary	p. 464
Suggested Readings	p. 465
Chapter References	p. 466
Glossary	p. 469
Illustration Credits	p. 480
Index	p. 481
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