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This book serves as a tool for any engineer who wants to learn about circuits, electrical machines and drives, power electronics, and power systems basics
From time to time, engineers find they need to brush up on certain fundamentals within electrical engineering. This clear and concise book is the ideal learning tool for them to quickly learn the basics or develop an understanding of newer topics.
Fundamentals of Electric Power Engineering: From Electromagnetics to Power Systems helps nonelectrical engineers amass power system information quickly by imparting tools and trade tricks for remembering basic concepts and grasping new developments. Created to provide more in-depth knowledge of fundamentals—rather than a broad range of applications only—this comprehensive and up-to-date book:
Fundamentals of Electric Power Engineering is an ideal refresher course for those involved in this interdisciplinary branch.
For supplementary files for this book, please visit http://booksupport.wiley.com
MASSIMO CERAOLO received his MSc degree in Electrical Engineering from the University of Pisa, with honors, in 1985. He has been Full Professor of Electric Power Systems since 2002. He has taught Networks, Components and Electric Systems at the University of Pisa, where he currently teaches Electric and Hybrid Vehicles. He has authored over one hundred scientific papers in several fields of electrical engineering.
DAVIDE POLI received his MSc degree, with honors, and his PhD in Electrical Engineering from the University of Pisa, in 1997 and in 2001. He has been Assistant Professor of Electric Power Systems since 2001. Currently, he teaches Power Quality and Power System Reliability at the University of Pisa. He has authored eighty scientific papers in the field of power systems.
PREFACE xv
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xix
PART I PRELIMINARY MATERIAL 1
1 Introduction 3
1.1 The Scope of Electrical Engineering, 3
1.2 This Book’s Scope and Organization, 7
1.3 International Standards and Their Usage in This Book, 8
1.3.1 International Standardization Bodies, 8
1.3.2 The International System of Units (SI), 9
1.3.3 Graphic Symbols for Circuit Drawings, 11
1.3.4 Names, Symbols, and Units, 13
1.3.5 Other Conventions, 15
1.4 Specific Conventions and Symbols in This Book, 15
1.4.1 Boxes Around Text, 16
1.4.2 Grayed Boxes, 16
1.4.3 Terminology, 17
1.4.4 Acronyms, 17
1.4.5 Reference Designations, 18
2 The Fundamental Laws of Electromagnetism 19
2.1 Vector Fields, 20
2.2 Definition of E and B; Lorentz’s Force Law, 22
2.3 Gauss’s Law, 25
2.4 Ampère’s Law and Charge Conservation, 26
2.4.1 Magnetic Field and Matter, 31
2.5 Faraday’s Law, 32
2.6 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism, 35
2.7 Constitutive Equations of Matter, 36
2.7.1 General Considerations, 36
2.7.2 Continuous Charge Flow Across Conductors, 36
2.8 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves, 38
2.9 Historical Notes, 40
2.9.1 Short Biography of Faraday, 40
2.9.2 Short Biography of Gauss, 40
2.9.3 Short Biography of Maxwell, 41
2.9.4 Short Biography of Ampère, 41
2.9.5 Short Biography of Lorentz, 41
PART II ELECTRIC CIRCUIT CONCEPT AND ANALYSIS 43
3 Circuits as Modelling Tools 45
3.1 Introduction, 46
3.2 Definitions, 48
3.3 Charge Conservation and Kirchhoff’s Current Law, 50
3.3.1 The Charge Conservation Law, 50
3.3.2 Charge Conservation and Circuits, 51
3.3.3 The Electric Current, 53
3.3.4 Formulations of Kirchhoff’s Current Law, 55
3.4 Circuit Potentials and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, 60
3.4.1 The Electric Field Inside Conductors, 60
3.4.2 Formulations of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, 64
3.5 Solution of a Circuit, 65
3.5.1 Determining Linearly Independent Kirchhoff Equations (Loop-Cuts Method), 66
3.5.2 Constitutive Equations, 68
3.5.3 Number of Variables and Equations, 70
3.6 The Substitution Principle, 73
3.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws in Comparison with Electromagnetism Laws, 75
3.8 Power in Circuits, 76
3.8.1 Tellegen’s Theorem and Energy Conservation Law in Circuits, 78
3.9 Historical Notes, 80
3.9.1 Short Biography of Kirchhoff, 80
3.9.2 Short Biography of Tellegen, 80
4 Techniques for Solving DC Circuits 83
4.1 Introduction, 84
4.2 Modelling Circuital Systems with Constant Quantities as Circuits, 84
4.2.1 The Basic Rule, 84
4.2.2 Resistors: Ohm’s Law, 87
4.2.3 Ideal and “Real” Voltage and Current Sources, 89
4.3 Solving Techniques, 91
4.3.1 Basic Usage of Combined Kirchhoff-Constitutive Equations, 92
4.3.2 Nodal Analysis, 95
4.3.3 Mesh Analysis, 98
4.3.4 Series and Parallel Resistors; Star/Delta Conversion, 99
4.3.5 Voltage and Current Division, 103
4.3.6 Linearity and Superposition, 105
4.3.7 Thévenin’s Theorem, 107
4.4 Power and Energy and Joule’s Law, 112
4.5 More Examples, 114
4.6 Resistive Circuits Operating with Variable Quantities, 120
4.7 Historical Notes, 121
4.7.1 Short Biography of Ohm, 121
4.7.2 Short Biography of Thévenin, 121
4.7.3 Short Biography of Joule, 122
4.8 Proposed Exercises, 122
5 Techniques for Solving AC Circuits 131
5.1 Introduction, 132
5.2 Energy Storage Elements, 132
5.2.1 Power in Time-Varying Circuits, 133
5.2.2 The Capacitor, 133
5.2.3 Inductors and Magnetic Circuits, 136
5.3 Modelling Time-Varying Circuital Systems as Circuits, 140
5.3.1 The Basic Rule, 140
5.3.2 Modelling Circuital Systems When Induced EMFs Between Wires Cannot Be Neglected, 145
5.3.3 Mutual Inductors and the Ideal Transformer, 146
5.3.4 Systems Containing Ideal Transformers: Magnetically Coupled Circuits, 150
5.4 Simple R–L and R–C Transients, 152
5.5 AC Circuit Analysis, 155
5.5.1 Sinusoidal Functions, 155
5.5.2 Steady-State Behaviour of Linear Circuits Using Phasors, 156
5.5.3 AC Circuit Passive Parameters, 163
5.5.4 The Phasor Circuit, 164
5.5.5 Circuits Containing Sources with Different Frequencies, 169
5.6 Power in AC Circuits, 171
5.6.1 Instantaneous, Active, Reactive, and Complex Powers, 171
5.6.2 Circuits Containing Sources Having Different Frequencies, 177
5.6.3 Conservation of Complex, Active, and Reactive Powers, 178
5.6.4 Power Factor Correction, 180
5.7 Historical Notes, 184
5.7.1 Short Biography of Boucherot, 184
5.8 Proposed Exercises, 184
6 Three-Phase Circuits 191
6.1 Introduction, 191
6.2 From Single-Phase to Three-Phase Systems, 192
6.2.1 Modelling Three-Phase Lines When Induced EMFs Between Wires Are Not Negligible, 198
6.3 The Single-Phase Equivalent of the Three-Phase Circuit, 200
6.4 Power in Three-Phase Systems, 202
6.5 Single-Phase Feeding from Three-Phase Systems, 206
6.6 Historical Notes, 209
6.6.1 Short Biography of Tesla, 209
6.7 Proposed Exercises, 209
PART III ELECTRIC MACHINES AND STATIC CONVERTERS 213
7 Magnetic Circuits and Transformers 215
7.1 Introduction, 215
7.2 Magnetic Circuits and Single-Phase Transformers, 215
7.3 Three-Phase Transformers, 225
7.4 Magnetic Hysteresis and Core Losses, 227
7.5 Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Tests, 230
7.6 Permanent Magnets, 233
7.7 Proposed Exercises, 235
8 Fundamentals of Electronic Power Conversion 239
8.1 Introduction, 239
8.2 Power Electronic Devices, 240
8.2.1 Diodes, Thyristors, Controllable Switches, 240
8.2.2 The Branch Approximation of Thyristors and Controllable Switches, 242
8.2.3 Diodes, 243
8.2.4 Thyristors, 246
8.2.5 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs), 248
8.2.6 Summary of Power Electronic Devices, 250
8.3 Power Electronic Converters, 251
8.3.1 Rectifiers, 251
8.3.2 DC–DC Converters, 257
8.3.3 Inverters, 264
8.4 Analysis of Periodic Quantities, 276
8.4.1 Introduction, 276
8.4.2 Periodic Quantities and Fourier’s Series, 276
8.4.3 Properties of Periodic Quantities and Examples, 279
8.4.4 Frequency Spectrum of Periodic Signals, 280
8.5 Filtering Basics, 283
8.5.1 The Basic Principle, 283
8.6 Summary, 289
9 Principles of Electromechanical Conversion 291
9.1 Introduction, 292
9.2 Electromechanical Conversion in a Translating Bar, 292
9.3 Basic Electromechanics in Rotating Machines, 297
9.3.1 Rotating Electrical Machines and Faraday’s Law, 297
9.3.2 Generation of Torques in Rotating Machines, 301
9.3.3 Electromotive Force and Torque in Distributed Coils, 302
9.3.4 The Uniform Magnetic Field Equivalent, 304
9.4 Reluctance-Based Electromechanical Conversion, 305
10 DC Machines and Drives and Universal Motors 309
10.1 Introduction, 310
10.2 The Basic Idea and Generation of Quasi-Constant Voltage, 310
10.3 Operation of a DC Generator Under Load, 315
10.4 Different Types of DC Machines, 318
10.4.1 Generators and Motors, 318
10.4.2 Starting a DC Motor with Constant Field Current, 320
10.4.3 Independent, Shunt, PM, and Series Excitation Motors, 326
10.5 Universal Motors, 329
10.6 DC Electric Drives, 331
10.7 Proposed Exercises, 335
11 Synchronous Machines and Drives 337
11.1 The Basic Idea and Generation of EMF, 338
11.2 Operation Under Load, 345
11.2.1 The Rotating Magnetic Field, 345
11.2.2 Stator–Rotor Interaction, 348
11.2.3 The Phasor Diagram and the Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit, 350
11.3 Practical Considerations, 353
11.3.1 Power Exchanges, 353
11.3.2 Generators and Motors, 357
11.4 Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Machines, 359
11.5 Synchronous Electric Drives, 360
11.5.1 Introduction, 360
11.5.2 PM, Inverter-Fed, Synchronous Motor Drives, 361
11.5.3 Control Implementation, 366
11.6 Historical Notes, 370
11.6.1 Short Biography of Ferraris and Behn-Eschemburg, 370
11.7 Proposed Exercises, 371
12 Induction Machines and Drives 373
12.1 Induction Machine Basics, 374
12.2 Machine Model and Analysis, 378
12.3 No-Load and Blocked-Rotor Tests, 391
12.4 Induction Machine Motor Drives, 394
12.5 Single-Phase Induction Motors, 399
12.5.1 Introduction, 399
12.5.2 Different Motor Types, 402
12.6 Proposed Exercises, 404
PART IV POWER SYSTEMS BASICS 409
13 Low-Voltage Electrical Installations 411
13.1 Another Look at the Concept of the Electric Power System, 411
13.2 Electrical Installations: A Basic Introduction, 413
13.3 Loads, 418
13.4 Cables, 422
13.4.1 Maximum Permissible Current and Choice of the Cross-Sectional Area, 422
13.5 Determining Voltage Drop, 427
13.6 Overcurrents and Overcurrent Protection, 429
13.6.1 Overloads, 429
13.6.2 Short Circuits, 430
13.6.3 Breaker Characteristics and Protection Against Overcurrents, 432
13.7 Protection in Installations: A Long List, 437
14 Electric Shock and Protective Measures 439
14.1 Introduction, 439
14.2 Electricity and the Human Body, 440
14.2.1 Effects of Current on Human Beings, 440
14.2.2 The Mechanism of Current Dispersion in the Earth, 443
14.2.3 A Circuital Model for the Human Body, 444
14.2.4 The Human Body in a Live Circuit, 446
14.2.5 System Earthing: TT, TN, and IT, 448
14.3 Protection Against Electric Shock, 450
14.3.1 Direct and Indirect Contacts, 450
14.3.2 Basic Protection (Protection Against Direct Contact), 451
14.3.3 Fault Protection (Protection Against Indirect Contact), 453
14.3.4 SELV Protection System, 458
14.4 The Residual Current Device (RCD) Principle of Operation, 459
14.5 What Else?, 462
References, 462
15 Large Power Systems: Structure and Operation 465
15.1 Aggregation of Loads and Installations: The Power System, 465
15.2 Toward AC Three-Phase Systems, 466
15.3 Electricity Distribution Networks, 468
15.4 Transmission and Interconnection Grids, 470
15.5 Modern Structure of Power Systems and Distributed Generation, 473
15.6 Basics of Power System Operation, 475
15.6.1 Frequency Regulation, 478
15.6.2 Voltage Regulation, 480
15.7 Vertically Integrated Utilities and Deregulated Power Systems, 482
15.8 Recent Challenges and Smart Grids, 484
15.9 Renewable Energy Sources and Energy Storage, 486
15.9.1 Photovoltaic Plants, 486
15.9.2 Wind Power Plants, 490
15.9.3 Energy Storage, 494
Appendix: Transmission Line Modelling and Port-Based Circuits 501
A.1 Modelling Transmission Lines Through Circuits, 501
A.1.1 Issues and Solutions When Displacement Currents are Neglected, 502
A.1.2 Steady-State Analysis Considering Displacement Currents, 506
A.1.3 Practical Considerations, 509
A.2 Modelling Lines as Two-Port Components, 510
A.2.1 Port-Based Circuits, 510
A.2.2 Port-Based Circuit and Transmission Lines, 511
A.2.3 A Sample Application, 512
A.3 Final Comments, 513
SELECTED REFERENCES 515
ANSWERS TO THE PROPOSED EXERCISES 519
INDEX 529
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