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1. Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 2
1.1 Historical Perspective 2
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 2
1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 4
1.4 Classification of Materials 5
Materials of Importance—Carbonated Beverage Containers 9
1.5 Advanced Materials 10
1.6 Modern Materials Needs 12
1.7 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Correlations 13
Summary 15
References 16
Question 16
2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 17
Learning Objectives 18
2.1 Introduction 18
ATOMIC STRUCTURE 18
2.2 Fundamental Concepts 18
2.3 Electrons in Atoms 19
2.4 The Periodic Table 25
ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 26
2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 26
2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 28
2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 32
Materials of Importance—Water (Its Volume Expansion Upon Freezing) 34
2.8 Molecules 35
Summary 35
Equation Summary 36
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 36
Important Terms and Concepts 37
References 37
Questions and Problems 37
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 39
3. Structures of Metals and Ceramics 40
Learning Objectives 41
3.1 Introduction 41
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 42
3.2 Fundamental Concepts 42
3.3 Unit Cells 42
3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 43
3.5 Density Computations—Metals 47
3.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures 48
3.7 Density Computations—Ceramics 54
3.8 Silicate Ceramics 55
3.9 Carbon 59
Materials of Importance—Carbon Nanotubes 60
3.10 Polymorphism and Allotropy 61
3.11 Crystal Systems 61
Material of Importance—Tin (Its Allotropic Transformation) 63
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND PLANES 64
3.12 Point Coordinates 64
3.13 Crystallographic Directions 66
3.14 Crystallographic Planes 72
3.15 Linear and Planar Densities 76
3.16 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 77
CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 81
3.17 Single Crystals 81
3.18 Polycrystalline Materials 81
3.19 Anisotropy 81
3.20 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 83
3.21 Noncrystalline Solids 87
Summary 89
Equation Summary 91
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 92
Important Terms and Concepts 93
References 94
Questions and Problems 94
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 101
4. Polymer Structures 102
Learning Objectives 103
4.1 Introduction 103
4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 103
4.3 Polymer Molecules 105
4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 106
4.5 Molecular Weight 111
4.6 Molecular Shape 113
4.7 Molecular Structure 115
4.8 Molecular Configurations 116
4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 120
4.10 Copolymers 121
4.11 Polymer Crystallinity 122
4.12 Polymer Crystals 125
Summary 128
Equation Summary 129
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 130
Important Terms and Concepts 130
References 131
Questions and Problems 131
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 133
5. Imperfections in Solids 134
Learning Objectives 135
5.1 Introduction 135
POINT DEFECTS 136
5.2 Point Defects in Metals 136
5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 137
5.4 Impurities in Solids 140
5.5 Point Defects in Polymers 143
5.6 Specification of Composition 143
MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 147
5.7 Dislocations—Linear Defects 147
5.8 Interfacial Defects 150
5.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 153
5.10 Atomic Vibrations 153
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 153
5.11 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 153
Materials of Importance—Catalysts (and Surface Defects) 154
5.12 Microscopic Techniques 155
5.13 Grain Size Determination 159
Summary 161
Equation Summary 163
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 164
Important Terms and Concepts 165
References 165
Questions and Problems 165
Design Problems 169
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 169
6. Diffusion 170
Learning Objectives 171
6.1 Introduction 171
6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 172
6.3 Steady-State Diffusion 173
6.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 175
6.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 179
6.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials 184
Material of Importance—Aluminum for Integrated Circuit Interconnects 187
6.7 Other Diffusion Paths 188
6.8 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials 188
Summary 191
Equation Summary 192
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 193
Important Terms and Concepts 194
References 195
Questions and Problems 195
Design Problems 198
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 199
7. Mechanical Properties 200
Learning Objectives 201
7.1 Introduction 201
7.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 202
ELASTIC DEFORMATION 205
7.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 205
7.4 Anelasticity 209
7.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 209
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR—METALS 211
7.6 Tensile Properties 212
7.7 True Stress and Strain 219
7.8 Elastic Recovery After Plastic
Deformation 222
7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation 222
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR—CERAMICS 223
7.10 Flexural Strength 223
7.11 Elastic Behavior 224
7.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics 224
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR—POLYMERS 226
7.13 Stress–Strain Behavior 226
7.14 Macroscopic Deformation 228
7.15 Viscoelastic Deformation 229
HARDNESS AND OTHER MECHANICAL PROPERTY CONSIDERATIONS 233
7.16 Hardness 233
7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 238
7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers 239
PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS 239
7.19 Variability of Material Properties 239
7.20 Design/Safety Factors 242
Summary 243
Equation Summary 246
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 248
Important Terms and Concepts 249
References 250
Questions and Problems 250
Design Problems 258
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 259
8. Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms 260
Learning Objectives 261
8.1 Introduction 261
DEFORMATION MECHANISMS FOR METALS 261
8.2 Historical 262
8.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 262
8.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 264
8.5 Slip Systems 265
8.6 Slip in Single Crystals 267
8.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 270
8.8 Deformation by Twinning 272
MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS 273
8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 273
8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 275
8.11 Strain Hardening 276
RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH 279
8.12 Recovery 279
8.13 Recrystallization 280
8.14 Grain Growth 284
DEFORMATION MECHANISMS FOR CERAMIC MATERIALS 285
8.15 Crystalline Ceramics 285
8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 286
MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 287
8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 287
8.18 Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 290
Materials of Importance—Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films 292
8.19 Deformation of Elastomers 293
Summary 295
Equation Summary 298
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 299
Important Terms and Concepts 302
References 302
Questions and Problems 302
Design Problems 307
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 307
9. Failure 308
Learning Objectives 309
9.1 Introduction 309
FRACTURE 310
9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 310
9.3 Ductile Fracture 310
9.4 Brittle Fracture 312
9.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 314
9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 322
9.7 Fracture of Polymers 326
9.8 Fracture Toughness Testing 328
FATIGUE 332
9.9 Cyclic Stresses 333
9.10 The S-N Curve 334
9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials 337
9.12 Crack Initiation and Propagation 337
9.13 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 339
9.14 Environmental Effects 341
CREEP 342
9.15 Generalized Creep Behavior 343
9.16 Stress and Temperature Effects 344
9.17 Data Extrapolation Methods 346
9.18 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 347
9.19 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric Materials 347
Summary 348
Equation Summary 351
Important Terms and Concepts 352
References 352
Questions and Problems 352
Design Problems 357
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 357
10. Phase Diagrams 359
Learning Objectives 360
10.1 Introduction 360
DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 360
10.2 Solubility Limit 361
10.3 Phases 362
10.4 Microstructure 362
10.5 Phase Equilibria 362
10.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 363
BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 365
10.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 365
10.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 367
10.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 371
10.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 374
10.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 374
10.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 380
Materials of Importance—Lead-Free Solders 381
10.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 387
10.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 390
10.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 391
10.16 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 391
10.17 Ternary Phase Diagrams 395
10.18 The Gibbs Phase Rule 396
THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM 398
10.19 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 398
10.20 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 401
10.21 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 408
Summary 409
Equation Summary 411
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 412
Important Terms and Concepts 412
References 414
Questions and Problems 414
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 420
11. Phase Transformations 421
Learning Objectives 422
11.1 Introduction 422
PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS IN METALS 422
11.2 Basic Concepts 423
11.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 423
11.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 433
MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANGES IN IRON–CARBON ALLOYS 434
11.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 434
11.6 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams 445
11.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys 448
11.8 Tempered Martensite 452
11.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Alloys 455
Materials of Importance—Shape-Memory Alloys 456
PRECIPITATION HARDENING 459
11.10 Heat Treatments 459
11.11 Mechanism of Hardening 461
11.12 Miscellaneous Considerations 464
CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 464
11.13 Crystallization 464
11.14 Melting 465
11.15 The Glass Transition 466
11.16 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 466
11.17 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 467
Summary 469
Equation Summary 472
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 473
Important Terms and Concepts 475
References 475
Questions and Problems 476
Design Problems 480
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 481
12. Electrical Properties 483
Learning Objectives 484
12.1 Introduction 484
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION 484
12.2 Ohm’s Law 484
12.3 Electrical Conductivity 485
12.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 486
12.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 486
12.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 488
12.7 Electron Mobility 490
12.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 491
12.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 494
Materials of Importance—Aluminum Electrical Wires 494
SEMICONDUCTIVITY 496
12.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 496
12.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 499
12.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 502
12.13 Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility 503
12.14 The Hall Effect 507
12.15 Semiconductor Devices 509
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS AND IN POLYMERS 515
12.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 516
12.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 516
DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR 517
12.18 Capacitance 517
12.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 519
12.20 Types of Polarization 522
12.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant 524
12.22 Dielectric Strength 525
12.23 Dielectric Materials 525
OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS 525
12.24 Ferroelectricity 525
12.25 Piezoelectricity 526
Summary 527
Equation Summary 530
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 531
Important Terms and Concepts 535
References 535
Questions and Problems 535
Design Problems 539
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 540
13. Types and Applications of Materials 542
Learning Objectives 543
13.1 Introduction 543
TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 543
13.2 Ferrous Alloys 543
13.3 Nonferrous Alloys 556
Materials of Importance—Metal Alloys Used for Euro Coins 565
TYPES OF CERAMICS 566
13.4 Glasses 567
13.5 Glass-Ceramics 567
13.6 Clay Products 569
13.7 Refractories 569
13.8 Abrasives 571
13.9 Cements 571
13.10 Advanced Ceramics 573
Materials of Importance—Piezoelectric Ceramics 575
13.11 Diamond and Graphite 576
TYPES OF POLYMERS 577
13.12 Plastics 577
Materials of Importance—Phenolic Billiard Balls 580
13.13 Elastomers 580
13.14 Fibers 582
13.15 Miscellaneous Applications 583
13.16 Advanced Polymeric Materials 584
Summary 588
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 590
Important Terms and Concepts 592
References 592
Questions and Problems 592
Design Questions 593
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 594
14. Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials 595
Learning Objectives 596
14.1 Introduction 596
FABRICATION OF METALS 596
14.2 Forming Operations 597
14.3 Casting 598
14.4 Miscellaneous Techniques 600
THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 601
14.5 Annealing Processes 601
14.6 Heat Treatment of Steels 604
FABRICATION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 613
14.7 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics 615
14.8 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 620
14.9 Powder Pressing 624
14.10 Tape Casting 626
SYNTHESIS AND FABRICATION OF POLYMERS 627
14.11 Polymerization 627
14.12 Polymer Additives 630
14.13 Forming Techniques for Plastics 631
14.14 Fabrication of Elastomers 634
14.15 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 634
Summary 635
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 637
Important Terms and Concepts 641
References 642
Questions and Problems 642
Design Problems 644
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 645
15. Composites 646
Learning Objectives 647
15.1 Introduction 647
PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 649
15.2 Large-Particle Composites 649
15.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 653
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 653
15.4 Influence of Fiber Length 654
15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 655
15.6 The Fiber Phase 663
15.7 The Matrix Phase 665
15.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 665
15.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 671
15.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 672
15.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 674
15.12 Hybrid Composites 674
15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 675
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 677
15.14 Laminar Composites 677
15.15 Sandwich Panels 678
Materials of Importance—Nanocomposite Barrier Coatings 679
Summary 681
Equation Summary 683
Important Terms and Concepts 684
References 684
Questions and Problems 684
Design Problems 687
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 688
16. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 689
Learning Objectives 690
16.1 Introduction 690
CORROSION OF METALS 691
16.2 Electrochemical Considerations 691
16.3 Corrosion Rates 697
16.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 699
16.5 Passivity 705
16.6 Environmental Effects 706
16.7 Forms of Corrosion 707
16.8 Corrosion Environments 714
16.9 Corrosion Prevention 715
16.10 Oxidation 717
CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 720
DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS 720
16.11 Swelling and Dissolution 720
16.12 Bond Rupture 722
16.13 Weathering 724
Summary 724
Equation Summary 726
Important Terms and Concepts 728
References 728
Questions and Problems 728
Design Problems 731
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 732
17. Thermal Properties 733
Learning Objectives 734
17.1 Introduction 734
17.2 Heat Capacity 734
17.3 Thermal Expansion 738
Materials of Importance—Invar and Other Low-Expansion Alloys 740
17.4 Thermal Conductivity 741
17.5 Thermal Stresses 744
Summary 746
Equation Summary 747
Important Terms and Concepts 748
References 748
Questions and Problems 748
Design Problems 750
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 750
18. Magnetic Properties 751
Learning Objectives 752
18.1 Introduction 752
18.2 Basic Concepts 752
18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 756
18.4 Ferromagnetism 758
18.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 759
18.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior 763
18.7 Domains and Hysteresis 764
18.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 767
18.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 768
Materials of Importance—An Iron–Silicon Alloy That Is Used in Transformer Cores 769
18.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 770
18.11 Magnetic Storage 773
18.12 Superconductivity 776
Summary 779
Equation Summary 781
Important Terms and Concepts 782
References 782
Questions and Problems 782
Design Problems 785
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 785
19. Optical Properties 786
Learning Objectives 787
19.1 Introduction 787
BASIC CONCEPTS 787
19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 787
19.3 Light Interactions With Solids 789
19.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions 790
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS 791
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS 792
19.5 Refraction 792
19.6 Reflection 794
19.7 Absorption 794
19.8 Transmission 798
19.9 Color 798
19.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators 800
APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA 801
19.11 Luminescence 801
19.12 Photoconductivity 801
Materials of Importance—Light-Emitting Diodes 802
19.13 Lasers 804
19.14 Optical Fibers in Communications 808
Summary 810
Equation Summary 812
Important Terms and Concepts 813
References 813
Questions and Problems 814
Design Problem 815
Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 815
20. Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 816
Learning Objectives 817
20.1 Introduction 817
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS 817
20.2 Component Design 818
20.3 Materials 818
20.4 Manufacturing Techniques 818
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL CONSIDERATIONS 819
20.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 821
Materials of Importance—Biodegradable and Biorenewable Polymers/Plastics 824
Summary 826
References 827
Design Questions 827
Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) 828
Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials 830
B.1 Density 830
B.2 Modulus of Elasticity 833
B.3 Poisson’s Ratio 837
B.4 Strength and Ductility 838
B.5 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness 843
B.6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 845
B.7 Thermal Conductivity 848
B.8 Specific Heat 851
B.9 Electrical Resistivity 854
B.10 Metal Alloy Compositions 857
Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials 859
Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers 864
Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials 868
Mechanical Engineering Online Support Module Library of Case Studies Glossary 869
Answers to Selected Problems 882
Index 886
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