Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering An Integrated Approach

by Callister, William D.; Rethwisch, David G.

• ISBN13: 9781119747734
• ISBN10: 1119747732
• Edition: 6th
• Format: Loose-leaf
• Copyright: 2021-01-13
• Publisher: Wiley

Summary

This revised Sixth Edition presents the basic fundamentals on a level appropriate for college students who have completed their freshmen calculus, chemistry, and physics courses. All subject matter is presented in a logical order, from the simple to the more complex. Each chapter builds on the content of previous ones. In order to expedite the learning process, the book provides:

• "Concept Check" questions to test conceptual understanding
• End-of-chapter questions and problems to develop understanding of concepts and problem-solving skills
• End-of-book Answers to Selected Problems to check accuracy of work
• End-of chapter summary tables containing key equations and equation symbols
• A glossary for easy reference

Table of Contents

List of Symbols xix

1. Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

1.1 Historical Perspective 2

1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3

1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5

Case Study 1.1—Cargo Ship Failures 6

1.4 Classification of Materials 7

Case Study 1.2—Carbonated Beverage Containers 12

1.5 Advanced Materials 14

1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 17

Summary 18

References 18

2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 19

Learning Objectives 20

2.1 Introduction 20

Atomic Structure 20

2.2 Fundamental Concepts 20

2.3 Electrons in Atoms 22

2.4 The Periodic Table 28

Atomic Bonding in Solids 30

2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 30

2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 32

2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 39

Materials of Importance 2.1—Water (Its Volume Expansion upon Freezing) 42

2.8 Mixed Bonding 43

2.9 Molecules 44

2.10 Bonding Type-Material Classification Correlations 44

Summary 45

Equation Summary 46

List of Symbols 46

Important Terms and Concepts 47

References 47

3. Structures of Metals and Ceramics 48

Learning Objectives 49

3.1 Introduction 49

Crystal Structures 49

3.2 Fundamental Concepts 49

3.3 Unit Cells 50

3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 51

3.5 Density Computations—Metals 57

3.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures 57

3.7 Density Computations—Ceramics 63

3.8 Silicate Ceramics 64

3.9 Carbon 68

3.10 Polymorphism and Allotropy 69

3.11 Crystal Systems 69

Material of Importance 3.1—Tin (Its Allotropic Transformation) 71

Crystallographic Points, Directions, and Planes 72

3.12 Point Coordinates 72

3.13 Crystallographic Directions 74

3.14 Crystallographic Planes 81

3.15 Linear and Planar Densities 87

3.16 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 88

Crystalline and Noncrystalline Materials 91

3.17 Single Crystals 91

3.18 Polycrystalline Materials 92

3.19 Anisotropy 92

3.20 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 94

3.21 Noncrystalline Solids 99

Summary 101

Equation Summary 103

List of Symbols 104

Important Terms and Concepts 105

References 105

4. Polymer Structures 106

Learning Objectives 107

4.1 Introduction 107

4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 107

4.3 Polymer Molecules 110

4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 110

4.5 Molecular Weight 114

4.6 Molecular Shape 117

4.7 Molecular Structure 119

4.8 Molecular Configurations 120

4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 123

4.10 Copolymers 124

4.11 Polymer Crystallinity 125

4.12 Polymer Crystals 129

Summary 131

Equation Summary 132

List of Symbols 133

Important Terms and Concepts 133

References 133

5. Imperfections in Solids 134

Learning Objectives 135

5.1 Introduction 135

Point Defects 136

5.2 Point Defects in Metals 136

5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 137

5.4 Impurities in Solids 140

5.5 Point Defects in Polymers 145

5.6 Specification of Composition 145

Miscellaneous Imperfections 149

5.7 Dislocations—Linear Defects 149

5.8 Interfacial Defects 152

Materials of Importance 5.1—Catalysts (and Surface Defects) 155

5.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 156

5.10 Atomic Vibrations 156

Microscopic Examination 157

5.11 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 157

5.12 Microscopic Techniques 158

5.13 Grain-Size Determination 162

Summary 165

Equation Summary 167

List of Symbols 167

Important Terms and Concepts 168

References 168

6. Diffusion 169

Learning Objectives 170

6.1 Introduction 170

6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 171

6.3 Fick’s First Law 172

6.4 Fick’s Second Law—Nonsteady-State Diffusion 174

6.5 Factors that Influence Diffusion 178

6.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials 183

Materials of Importance 6.1—Aluminum for Integrated Circuit Interconnects 186

6.7 Other Diffusion Paths 187

6.8 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials 187

Summary 190

Equation Summary 191

List of Symbols 192

Important Terms and Concepts 192

References 192

7. Mechanical Properties 193

Learning Objectives 194

7.1 Introduction 194

7.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 195

Elastic Deformation 199

7.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 199

7.4 Anelasticity 202

7.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 203

Mechanical Behavior—Metals 205

7.6 Tensile Properties 206

7.7 True Stress and Strain 213

7.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 216

7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformations 216

Mechanical Behavior—Ceramics 217

7.10 Flexural Strength 217

7.11 Elastic Behavior 218

7.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics 218

Mechanical Behavior—Polymers 220

7.13 Stress–Strain Behavior 220

7.14 Macroscopic Deformation 222

7.15 Viscoelastic Deformation 223

Hardness and Other Mechanical Property Considerations 227

7.16 Hardness 227

7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 232

7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers 233

Property Variability and Design/Safety Factors 234

7.19 Variability of Material Properties 234

7.20 Design/Safety Factors 236

Summary 240

Equation Summary 242

List of Symbols 243

Important Terms and Concepts 244

References 244

8. Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms 246

Learning Objectives 247

8.1 Introduction 247

Deformation Mechanisms for Metals 247

8.2 Historical 248

8.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 248

8.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 250

8.5 Slip Systems 251

8.6 Slip in Single Crystals 253

8.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 256

8.8 Deformation by Twinning 258

Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals 259

8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 259

8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 261

8.11 Strain Hardening 262

Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 265

8.12 Recovery 265

8.13 Recrystallization 266

8.14 Grain Growth 270

Deformation Mechanisms for Ceramic Materials 272

8.15 Crystalline Ceramics 272

8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 272

Mechanisms of Deformation and for Strengthening of Polymers 273

8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 273

8.18 Factors that Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 275

Materials of Importance 8.1—Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films 278

8.19 Deformation of Elastomers 279

Summary 281

Equation Summary 284

List of Symbols 284

Important Terms and Concepts 284

References 285

9. Failure 286

Learning Objectives 287

9.1 Introduction 287

Fracture 288

9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 288

9.3 Ductile Fracture 288

9.4 Brittle Fracture 290

9.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 292

9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 301

9.7 Fracture of Polymers 305

9.8 Fracture Toughness Testing 307

Fatigue 311

9.9 Cyclic Stresses 312

9.10 The S–N Curve 313

9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials 318

9.12 Crack Initiation and Propagation 319

9.13 Factors that Affect Fatigue Life 321

9.14 Environmental Effects 323

Creep 324

9.15 Generalized Creep Behavior 324

9.16 Stress and Temperature Effects 325

9.17 Data Extrapolation Methods 328

9.18 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 329

9.19 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric Materials 330

Summary 330

Equation Summary 333

List of Symbols 334

Important Terms and Concepts 335

References 335

10. Phase Diagrams 336

Learning Objectives 337

10.1 Introduction 337

Definitions and Basic Concepts 337

10.2 Solubility Limit 338

10.3 Phases 339

10.4 Microstructure 339

10.5 Phase Equilibria 339

10.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 340

Binary Phase Diagrams 341

10.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 342

10.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 344

10.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 348

10.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 351

10.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 351

10.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 357

Materials of Importance 10.1—Lead-Free Solders 358

10.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 364

10.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 367

10.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 368

10.16 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 369

10.17 Ternary Phase Diagrams 372

10.18 The Gibbs Phase Rule 373

The Iron–Carbon System 375

10.19 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 375

10.20 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 378

10.21 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 385

Summary 386

Equation Summary 388

List of Symbols 389

Important Terms and Concepts 389

References 389

11. Phase Transformations 390

Learning Objectives 391

11.1 Introduction 391

Phase Transformations in Metals 391

11.2 Basic Concepts 392

11.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 392

11.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 403

Microstructural and Property Changes in Iron–Carbon Alloys 404

11.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 404

11.6 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams 415

11.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys 418

11.8 Tempered Martensite 422

11.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Alloys 425

Materials of Importance 11.1—ShapeMemory Alloys 428

Precipitation Hardening 431

11.10 Heat Treatments 431

11.11 Mechanism of Hardening 433

11.12 Miscellaneous Considerations 435

Crystallization, Melting, and Glass Transition Phenomena in Polymers 436

11.13 Crystallization 436

11.14 Melting 437

11.15 The Glass Transition 437

11.16 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 438

11.17 Factors that Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 438

Summary 441

Equation Summary 443

List of Symbols 444

Important Terms and Concepts 444

References 444

12. Electrical Properties 445

Learning Objectives 446

12.1 Introduction 446

Electrical Conduction 446

12.2 Ohm’s Law 446

12.3 Electrical Conductivity 447

12.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 448

12.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 448

12.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 450

12.7 Electron Mobility 452

12.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 453

12.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 456

Semiconductivity 456

12.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 456

12.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 459

12.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 462

12.13 Factors that Affect Carrier Mobility 463

12.14 The Hall Effect 467

12.15 Semiconductor Devices 469

Electrical Conduction in Ionic Ceramics and in Polymers 475

12.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 476

12.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 476

Dielectric Behavior 477

12.18 Capacitance 477

12.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 479

12.20 Types of Polarization 482

12.21 Frequency Dependence of The Dielectric Constant 484

12.22 Dielectric Strength 485

12.23 Dielectric Materials 485

Other Electrical Characteristics of Materials 485

12.24 Ferroelectricity 485

12.25 Piezoelectricity 486

Material of Importance 12.1—Piezoelectric Ceramic Ink-Jet Printer Heads 487

Summary 487

Equation Summary 491

List of Symbols 491

Important Terms and Concepts 492

References 492

13. Types and Applications of Materials 493

Learning Objectives 494

13.1 Introduction 494

Types of Metal Alloys 494

13.2 Ferrous Alloys 494

13.3 Nonferrous Alloys 507

Materials of Importance 13.1—Metal Alloys Used for Euro Coins 517

Types of Ceramics 518

13.4 Glasses 519

13.5 Glass-Ceramics 519

13.6 Clay Products 521

13.7 Refractories 521

13.8 Abrasives 524

13.9 Cements 526

13.10 Ceramic Biomaterials 527

13.11 Carbons 528

13.12 Advanced Ceramics 531

Types of Polymers 536

13.13 Plastics 536

Materials of Importance 13.2—Phenolic Billiard Balls 539

13.14 Elastomers 539

13.15 Fibers 541

13.16 Miscellaneous Applications 542

13.17 Polymeric Biomaterials 543

13.18 Advanced Polymeric Materials 545

Summary 549

Important Terms and Concepts 552

References 552

14. Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials 553

Learning Objectives 554

14.1 Introduction 554

Fabrication of Metals 554

14.2 Forming Operations 555

14.3 Casting 556

14.4 Miscellaneous Techniques 558

14.5 3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing) 559

Thermal Processing of Metals 563

14.6 Annealing Processes 563

14.7 Heat Treatment of Steels 566

Fabrication of Ceramic Materials 577

14.8 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics 577

14.9 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 583

14.10 Powder Pressing 587

14.11 Tape Casting 589

14.12 3D Printing of Ceramic Materials 590

Synthesis and Fabrication of Polymers 591

14.13 Polymerization 591

14.14 Polymer Additives 594

14.15 Forming Techniques for Plastics 595

14.16 Fabrication of Elastomers 598

14.17 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 598

14.18 3D Printing of Polymers 599

Summary 602

Important Terms and Concepts 604

References 605

15. Composites 606

Learning Objectives 607

15.1 Introduction 607

Particle-Reinforced Composites 609

15.2 Large–Particle Composites 609

15.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 613

Fiber-Reinforced Composites 613

15.4 Influence of Fiber Length 614

15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 615

15.6 The Fiber Phase 623

15.7 The Matrix Phase 625

15.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 625

15.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 631

15.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 632

15.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 634

15.12 Hybrid Composites 634

15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 635

Structural Composites 637

15.14 Laminar Composites 637

15.15 Sandwich Panels 639

Case Study 15.1—Use of Composites in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner 641

15.16 Nanocomposites 642

Summary 644

Equation Summary 647

List of Symbols 647

Important Terms and Concepts 648

References 648

16. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 649

Learning Objectives 650

16.1 Introduction 650

Corrosion of Metals 651

16.2 Electrochemical Considerations 651

16.3 Corrosion Rates 657

16.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 659

16.5 Passivity 665

16.6 Environmental Effects 666

16.7 Forms of Corrosion 667

16.8 Corrosion Environments 674

16.9 Corrosion Prevention 675

16.10 Oxidation 677

Corrosion of Ceramic Materials 681

Degradation of Polymers 681

16.11 Swelling and Dissolution 681

16.12 Bond Rupture 683

16.13 Weathering 685

Summary 685

Equation Summary 687

List of Symbols 688

Important Terms and Concepts 689

References 689

17. Thermal Properties 690

Learning Objectives 691

17.1 Introduction 691

17.2 Heat Capacity 691

17.3 Thermal Expansion 695

Materials of Importance 17.1—Invar and Other Low-Expansion Alloys 697

17.4 Thermal Conductivity 698

17.5 Thermal Stresses 701

Summary 703

Equation Summary 704

List of Symbols 705

Important Terms and Concepts 705

References 705

18. Magnetic Properties 706

Learning Objectives 707

18.1 Introduction 707

18.2 Basic Concepts 707

18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 711

18.4 Ferromagnetism 713

18.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 714

18.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior 718

18.7 Domains and Hysteresis 719

18.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 722

18.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 724

Materials of Importance 18.1—An Iron–Silicon Alloy that Is Used in Transformer Cores 724

18.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 726

18.11 Magnetic Storage 729

18.12 Superconductivity 732

Summary 735

Equation Summary 737

List of Symbols 737

Important Terms and Concepts 738

References 738

19. Optical Properties 739

Learning Objectives 740

19.1 Introduction 740

Basic Concepts 740

19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 740

19.3 Light Interactions with Solids 742

19.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions 743

Optical Properties of Metals 744

Optical Properties of Nonmetals 745

19.5 Refraction 745

19.6 Reflection 747

19.7 Absorption 747

19.8 Transmission 751

19.9 Color 751

19.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators 753

Applications of Optical Phenomena 754

19.11 Luminescence 754

19.12 Photoconductivity 754

Materials of Importance 19.1—LightEmitting Diodes 755

19.13 Lasers 757

19.14 Optical Fibers in Communications 761

Summary 763

Equation Summary 765

List of Symbols 766

Important Terms and Concepts 766

References 766

20. Environmental and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 767

Learning Objectives 768

20.1 Introduction 768

20.2 Environmental and Societal Considerations 768

20.3 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 771

Materials of Importance 20.1— Biodegradable and Biorenewable

Polymers/Plastics 775

Summary 777

References 778

Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) 779

Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials 781

B.1: Density 781

B.2: Modulus of Elasticity 784

B.3: Poisson’s Ratio 788

B.4: Strength and Ductility 789

B.5: Plane Strain Fracture Toughness 794

B.6: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 796

B.7: Thermal Conductivity 799

B.8: Specific Heat 802

B.9: Electrical Resistivity 805

B.10: Metal Alloy Compositions 808

Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials 810

Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers 815

Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials 819

Appendix F 820

Glossary 824

Questions and Problems P-1

Answers to Selected Problems P-A1

Index TK