Fundamentals of Microfabrication: The Science of Miniaturization, Second Edition

by Madou; Marc J.

• ISBN13: 9780849308260
• ISBN10: 0849308267
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2002-03-13
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

MEMS technology and applications have grown at a tremendous pace, while structural dimensions have grown smaller and smaller, reaching down even to the molecular level. With this movement have come new types of applications and rapid advances in the technologies and techniques needed to fabricate the increasingly miniature devices that are literally changing our world.A bestseller in its first edition, Fundamentals of Microfabrication, Second Edition reflects the many developments in methods, materials, and applications that have emerged recently. Renowned author Marc Madou has added exercise sets to each chapter, thus answering the need for a textbook in this field.Fundamentals of Microfabrication, Second Edition offers unique, in-depth coverage of the science of miniaturization, its methods, and materials. From the fundamentals of lithography through bonding and packaging to quantum structures and molecular engineering, it provides the background, tools, and directions you need to confidently choose fabrication methods and materials for a particular miniaturization problem.New in the Second Edition· Revised chapters that reflect the many recent advances in the field· Updated and enhanced discussions of topics including DNA arrays, microfluidics, micromolding techniques, and nanotechnology· In-depth coverage of bio-MEMs, RF-MEMs, high-temperature, and optical MEMs.· Many more links to the Web· Problem sets in each chapter

Table of Contents

Lithography	1	(77)
Introduction	1	(1)
Historical Note: Lithography's Origins	1	(1)
Photolithography Overview	2	(12)
Introduction	2	(1)
Masks	3	(1)
Spinning Resist and Soft Baking	3	(1)
Exposure and Postexposure Treatment	4	(1)
Development	5	(1)
De-scumming and Postbaking	6	(1)
Resists	6	(4)
Wafer Priming	10	(1)
Wafer Cleaning and Contaminants: The Clean Room	10	(3)
Resist Stripping	13	(1)
Critical Dimension, Overall Resolution, Line Width	14	(1)
Lithographic Sensitivity and Intrinsic Resist Sensitivity (Photochemical Quantum Efficiency)	14	(2)
Lithographic Sensitivity	14	(1)
Intrinsic Sensitivity of a Resist (Photochemical Quantum Efficiency)	15	(1)
Resist Profiles	16	(3)
Overview of Profile Types	16	(2)
Lift-Off Profile	18	(1)
Contrast and Experimental Determination of Lithographic Sensitivity	19	(2)
Resolution in Photolithography	21	(11)
Introduction	21	(1)
Resolution in Contact and Proximity Printing (Shadow Printing)	21	(1)
Projection Printing	22	(9)
Planarization	31	(1)
Photolithography Resolution Enhancement Technology	32	(12)
Introduction	32	(1)
Strategies for Improved Resolution through Improved Resist Performance	33	(8)
Strategies for Improved Resolution through Improved Mask Technology	41	(3)
Beyond Moore's Law	44	(4)
Introduction	44	(1)
Moore's Law	44	(2)
Kurzweil	46	(2)
Next-Generation Lithographies	48	(10)
Introduction	48	(1)
Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography	48	(1)
X-Ray Lithography	49	(3)
Charged-Particle-Beam Lithography	52	(6)
Emerging Lithography Technologies	58	(10)
Introduction	58	(1)
Scanning probe Lithography	58	(3)
Very Thin Resist Layers	61	(2)
Soft Lithography	63	(2)
3D Lithography Methods	65	(3)
Examples	68	(2)
Protein Patterning	68	(1)
Inclined LIGA Walls	69	(1)
PDMS-Based CDs	69	(1)
Problems	70	(1)
References	71	(6)
Pattern Transfer with Dry Etching Techniques	77	(46)
Introduction	77	(1)
Dry Etching: Definitions and Jargon	78	(1)
Plasmas or Discharges	79	(9)
Physics of DC Plasmas	79	(4)
Spatial Zones in the Glow Discharge	83	(1)
Paschen's Law	84	(1)
Physics of RF Plasmas	85	(3)
Physical Etching: Ion Etching or Sputtering and Ion-Beam Milling	88	(5)
Introduction	88	(1)
Sputtering or Ion Etching	88	(1)
Ion-Beam Etching or Ion-Beam Milling	89	(2)
Etching Profiles in Physical Etching	91	(2)
Plasma Etching (Radical Etching)	93	(4)
Introduction	93	(1)
Reactor Configurations	93	(1)
Reaction Mechanism	94	(1)
Loading Effects-Uniformity and Nonuniformity	95	(1)
Atmospheric Downstream Plasma Etching or Plasma Jet Etching	95	(2)
Ion Energy vs. Pressure Relationship in a Plasma	97	(1)
Physical/Chemical Etching	97	(7)
Introduction	97	(1)
Energy-Driven Anisotropy	97	(2)
Inhibitor-Driven Anisotropy	99	(1)
Dopant-Driven Anisotropy	100	(1)
Gas Compositions in Dry Etching	101	(1)
Simplifying Rules	101	(3)
Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)	104	(3)
Introduction	104	(1)
New Plasma Sources	104	(2)
Common Problems Associated with DRIE	106	(1)
Vapor-Phase Etching without Plasma (XeF2)	107	(1)
Dry Etching Models-In Situ Monitoring	108	(2)
Comparing Wet and Dry Etching	110	(1)
Examples	110	(6)
Via Etching in Si	110	(1)
Single-Crystal Reactive Etching and Metallization (SCREAM)	111	(3)
Post-CMOS Processing for High-Aspect-Ratio Integrated Silicon Microstructures	114	(1)
Dry Etching of polymeric Materials	114	(1)
Combination Wet and Dry Etching	115	(1)
Problems	116	(2)
References	118	(5)
Pattern Transfer with Additive Techniques	123	(60)
Introduction	123	(2)
Silicon Growth	125	(2)
Doping of Si	127	(4)
Introduction	127	(1)
Conductivity of Semiconductors	128	(1)
Si Doping by Diffusion	128	(2)
Doping by Implantation	130	(1)
Oxidation of Silicon	131	(3)
Kinetics	131	(2)
Orientation Dependence of Oxidation Kinetics	133	(1)
Properties of Thermal SiO2	133	(1)
Physical Vapor Deposition	134	(10)
Introduction	134	(1)
Thermal Evaporation	135	(3)
Sputtering	138	(2)
Molecular Beam Epitaxy	140	(1)
Laser Sputter Deposition or Ablation Deposition	141	(2)
Ion Plating	143	(1)
Cluster Beam Technology	143	(1)
Chemical Vapor Deposition	144	(10)
Introduction	144	(1)
Reaction Mechanisms	144	(2)
Step Coverage	146	(1)
Energy Sources for CVD Processes	147	(1)
Overview of CVD Process Types	148	(4)
Epitaxy	152	(2)
CVD Equipment	154	(1)
Silk-Screening or Screen Printing	154	(2)
Introduction	154	(1)
How It Works	155	(1)
Types of Inks	155	(1)
Sol-Gel Deposition Technique	156	(1)
Doctor's Blade or Tape Casting	157	(1)
Plasma Spraying	157	(2)
Introduction	157	(1)
How It Works	157	(2)
Deposition and Arraying Methods of Organic Layers in BIOMEMS	159	(9)
Introduction	159	(1)
Deposition Methods for Organic Materials	159	(2)
Patterning of Organic Materials	161	(7)
Thin vs. Thick Film Deposition	168	(2)
Selection Criteria for Deposition Method	170	(1)
Examples	170	(4)
Spray Pyrolysis	170	(2)
Plasma-Beam Deposition	172	(2)
Proposed Scenario for Continuous Manufacture of polymer/Metal Based Biosensors-Beyond Batch	174	(1)
Problems	174	(4)
References	178	(5)
Wet Bulk Micromachining	183	(76)
Introduction	183	(1)
Historical Note	184	(1)
Silicon Crystallography	185	(8)
Introduction	185	(1)
Miller Indices	185	(1)
Crystal Structure of Silicon	186	(1)
Geometric Relationships between Some Important Planes in the Silicon Lattice	187	(6)
Silicon as Substrate	193	(2)
Silicon as a Mechanical Element in MEMS	195	(9)
Introduction	195	(1)
Stress-Strain Curve and Elasticity Constants	195	(3)
Residual Stress in Si	198	(1)
Yield, Tensile Strength, Hardness, and Creep	199	(1)
Piezoresistivity in Silicon	200	(3)
Bending of Thin Si Plates	203	(1)
Silicon as a Mechanical MEMS Material: Summary	204	(1)
Other Si Sensor Properties	204	(2)
Thermal Properties of Silicon	204	(1)
Silicon Optical Properties	205	(1)
Wet Isotropic and Anisotropic Etching	206	(22)
Introduction	206	(2)
Isotropic Etching	208	(4)
Anisotropic Etching	212	(8)
Chemical Etching Models	220	(8)
Etching with Bias and/or Illumination of the Semiconductor	228	(4)
Introduction	228	(1)
Electropolishing and Microporous Silicon	229	(3)
Etch-Stop Techniques	232	(7)
Introduction	232	(1)
Boron Etch Stop	233	(2)
Electrochemical Etch Stop	235	(2)
Photo-Assisted Electrochemical Etch Stop (for n-Type Silicon)	237	(1)
Photo-Induced Preferential Anodization (for p-Type Silicon)	238	(1)
Etch Stop at Thin Insoluble Films	239	(1)
Issues in Wet Bulk Micromachining	239	(6)
Introduction	239	(1)
Extensive Real Estate Consumption	239	(1)
Corner Compensation	240	(5)
Computer Simulation Software	245	(1)
Examples	245	(5)
Dissolved Wafer Process	245	(1)
An Electrochemical Sensor Array Measuring pH, CO2, and O2 in a Dual Lumen Catheter	246	(1)
Disposable Electrochemical Valves	247	(2)
Self Aligned Vertical Mirrors and V-Grooves for a Magnetic Micro-Optical Matrix Switch	249	(1)
Problems	250	(1)
References	251	(8)
Surface Micromachining	259	(66)
Introduction	259	(1)
Historical Note	260	(1)
Mechanical Properties of Thin Films	261	(11)
Introduction	261	(1)
Adhesion	262	(1)
Stress in Thin Films	262	(3)
Stress-Measuring Techniques	265	(7)
Strength of Thin Films	272	(1)
Surface Micromachining Processes	272	(11)
Basic Process Sequence	272	(1)
Fabrication Step Details	273	(4)
Control of Film Stress	277	(2)
Dimensional Uncertainties	279	(1)
Sealing Processes in Surface Micromachining	279	(1)
IC Compatibility	280	(3)
Poly-Si Surface Micromachining Modifications	283	(4)
Porous Poly-Si	283	(1)
Hinged Polysilicon	283	(2)
Thick Polysilicon	285	(1)
Milli-Scale Molded Polysilicon Structures	285	(2)
Surface Micromachinig Modifications Not Involving Polysilicon	287	(5)
SOI Surface Micromachining	287	(4)
Resists as Structural Elements and Molds m Surface Micromachining	291	(1)
Comparison of Bulk Micromachining with Surface Micromachining	292	(1)
Materials Case Studies	293	(13)
Introduction	293	(1)
Polysilicon Deposition and Material Structure	294	(4)
Amorphous and Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon	298	(1)
Silicon Nitride	299	(2)
CVD Silicon Dioxides	301	(2)
Metals in Surface Micromachining	303	(1)
Polycrystalline Diamond and SiC Films	303	(2)
GaAs	305	(1)
Examples	306	(7)
Analog Devices Accelerometer	306	(2)
TI Micromirrors	308	(2)
Design of SOI-Based High-Sensitivity Piezoresistive Cantilevers for Label-Less Sensing	310	(3)
Problems	313	(2)
References	315	(10)
LIGA and Micromolding	325	(54)
Introduction	325	(1)
LIGA-Background	325	(5)
History	325	(2)
Synchrotron Orbital Radiation (SOR)	327	(3)
Access to the Technology	330	(1)
LIGA and LIGA-Like Process Steps	330	(39)
X-Ray Masks	330	(5)
Choice of primary Substrate	335	(1)
Resist Requirements	335	(1)
Methods of Resist Application	336	(3)
Exposure	339	(2)
Development	341	(1)
Comparison of Master Micromold Fabrication Methods	342	(2)
Metal Deposition	344	(13)
Molding	357	(10)
Demolding	367	(1)
Sarcificial Layers	367	(1)
Alternative Materials m LIGA	368	(1)
Examples	369	(2)
Electromagnetic Micromotor	369	(1)
LIGA Spinneret Nozzles	369	(1)
LIGA Fiber-Chip Coupling	370	(1)
Problems	371	(2)
References	373	(6)
A Comparison of Miniaturization Techniques: Top-Down and Bottom-Up Manufacturing	379	(88)
Introduction	379	(1)
Absolute and Relative Tolerance in Manufacturing	380	(1)
Historical Note: Human Manufacturing	381	(4)
Section I: Top-Down Manufacturing Methods	385	(38)
Introduction	385	(1)
Chemical Microfabrication	385	(5)
Electrochemical Machining	390	(5)
Wet vs. Dry Microfabrication	395	(3)
Electrothermal Processes	398	(15)
Mechanical Processes	413	(6)
Comparison of Top-Down Micromachining Techniques	419	(4)
Section II: Bottom-Up Approaches	423	(33)
Introduction	424	(1)
Nature's Engineering Feats	425	(18)
How to Apply Nature's Tools-Merging of Biotechnology with Nanofabrication	443	(13)
Examples	456	(2)
An Electrochemical Immunosensor	456	(1)
An Optical Immunosensor	457	(1)
Problems	458	(2)
References	460	(7)
Modeling, Brains, Packaging, Sample Preparation, and Substrate Choice	467	(68)
Introduction	467	(1)
Modeling	468	(5)
Introduction	468	(1)
Finite Element Analysis	468	(2)
CAD for MEMS	470	(3)
Future of CAD for MEMS	473	(1)
Brains in MEMS	473	(5)
Introduction	473	(1)
State of the Art in Computer Development	474	(1)
Brains in Nature	474	(1)
Artificial Intelligence	475	(3)
Packaging	478	(34)
Introduction	478	(1)
Packaging in Integrated Circuits vs. in Mechanical Micromachines	478	(3)
Dicing	481	(1)
Cavity Sealing and Bonding	481	(13)
Higher Levels of packaging-L2 to L5	494	(1)
Stress Isolation and Thermal Management	494	(1)
Multichip Packaging	495	(1)
Connections between Layers (Vias)	496	(1)
Partitioning	497	(6)
Micro and Nano Assembly	503	(5)
Biocompatibility	508	(4)
Sample Preparation in Molecular Diagnostics	512	(6)
Introduction	512	(1)
Types of Samples	512	(1)
Sample Preparation Protocols for Integrated DNA Analysis Devices	513	(5)
Substrate Choice	518	(4)
Introduction	518	(1)
Quartz MEMS	519	(1)
Micromachining and Surface Microstructuring of Ceramics	519	(2)
Polyimide MEMS	521	(1)
Examples	522	(1)
Packaging of a Variable Entrance Slit for a Spectrophotometer	522	(1)
A Miniature Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Sensor-Spreeta™	523	(1)
Problems	523	(1)
References	524	(11)
Scaling, Actuators, and Power in Miniaturized Systems	535	(80)
Introduction	535	(1)
Scaling	536	(11)
Introduction	536	(1)
Micro Intuition and Nature as a Guide	536	(1)
Scaling of Length, Surface Area, and Volume	537	(1)
Scaling in Flying and Swimming	537	(1)
Scaling and Surface Tension	538	(1)
Scaling and Diffusion	539	(1)
Scaling of Minimal Analytical Sample Size	540	(1)
Scaling in Electrochemistry	540	(1)
Scaling in Optics	540	(2)
Scaling of Strength-to-Weight Ratio and Inertia	542	(1)
Fundamental Frequency and Quality Factor	543	(1)
Muscle, Flagellum, and Protein Motors	543	(2)
Trimmer's Vertical Bracket Notation	545	(2)
Actuators	547	(32)
Introduction	547	(1)
Electric Actuators	547	(27)
Magnetic Actuators	574	(5)
Fluidics	579	(8)
Introduction	579	(1)
Macroscale Laws for Fluid Flow	580	(3)
Breakdown of Flow Continuum	583	(1)
Capillary Forces	584	(3)
Thermal Actuators	587	(6)
Introduction	587	(1)
Macroscale Laws in Heat Conduction	587	(3)
Breakdown of Continuum in Heat Transfer	590	(1)
Example Thermal Actuators	591	(2)
Scaling in Analytical Separation Equipment	593	(7)
Introduction	593	(1)
Commonly Used Terms in Separation Chemistry	594	(1)
Band Broadcasting in the Column	595	(1)
Other Band Broadening Effects	596	(4)
Other Actuators	600	(1)
Power in MEMS	600	(2)
Introduction	600	(1)
MEMS Batteries and Capacitors	601	(1)
Beam Energy to the MEMS	601	(1)
Heat-Powered MEMS	602	(1)
Kinetic Energy Driven MEMS	602	(1)
Combustion Engines in MEMS	602	(1)
Examples	602	(3)
The Bead d Array Counter (BARC)	602	(1)
The Nanogen Chip	602	(1)
Field Ionization Sources	603	(2)
Problems	605	(1)
References	606	(9)
Miniaturization Applications	615	(54)
Introduction	615	(1)
Definitions and Classification Method	616	(5)
Introduction	616	(1)
Definitions	616	(2)
Classification Method	618	(3)
Decision Tree	621	(3)
Specifications	621	(1)
Scaling Characteristics of Micromechanisms	622	(1)
Checklist	622	(2)
Overall Market for Micromachines	624	(6)
Introduction	624	(1)
Why Use Miniaturization Technology?	624	(1)
From Perception to Realization	625	(1)
Overall MEMS Market Size	626	(3)
MEMS Market Characteristics	629	(1)
MEMS in the Automotive Market	630	(9)
Introduction	630	(1)
Pressure	631	(3)
Accelerometers	634	(3)
Angular Rate Sensors and Gyroscopes	637	(1)
Conclusions	638	(1)
MEMS in Medical and Biomedical Markets	639	(11)
Introduction	639	(1)
Market Character	639	(2)
In Vitro Diagnostics	641	(3)
In Vivo MEMS Applications	644	(2)
Miniaturization in Biomedical Instruments	646	(4)
Environmental Monitoring	650	(5)
Introduction	650	(1)
MEMS and Solid State Gas Sensors and Solid State Gas Sensor Arrays	651	(1)
Electrochemical Gas Sensors	652	(1)
Optochemical Gas Sensor	652	(1)
Instrumentation	652	(3)
Industrial/Automation	655	(3)
Introduction	656	(1)
ISFETs	656	(1)
Microhygrometer	657	(1)
Valves	657	(1)
IT/Peripheral	658	(3)
Introduction	658	(1)
Memory Read/Write Devices	658	(2)
Ink-Jet Cartridges	660	(1)
Other MEMS IT Applications	660	(1)
Telecommunications	661	(3)
Introduction	661	(1)
Optical Communications	662	(2)
Wireless Communications	664	(1)
Problems	664	(2)
References	666	(3)
Appendix A Metrology Techniques for MEMS	669	(2)
Appendix B Living Book	671	(2)
Appendix C Si and SiO2 Etch Rates in KOH	673	(2)
Appendix D Genetics	675	(4)
The 20 Amino Acids Found in Biological Systems	675	(2)
The Genetic Code	677	(2)
Appendix E Suggested Further Reading	679	(6)
Books on Top-Drum and Bottom-Up Miniaturization	679	(3)
Journals and Periodicals on Micromachining and Sensors	682	(1)
Series on Micromachining and Sensors	682	(1)
Market Studies on Micromachining and Sensors	683	(1)
Important Proceedings/Conferences on Micromachining and Sensors	683	(2)
Hilton Head Conferences	683	(1)
MEMS	683	(1)
Chemical Sensors	684	(1)
International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators (Transducers)	684	(1)
International Society for Optical Engineers (SPIE)	684	(1)
MicroTotalAnalysis Systems (μTAS)	684	(1)
Nanotech	684	(1)
Eurosensors	684	(1)
Commercial conference planners	684	(1)
Knowledge Foundation	684	(1)
BBC	684	(1)
CHI	684	(1)
Appendix F MEMS Companies	685	(2)
Appendix G Glossary	687	(16)
Index	703