Fundamentals of Nanoscale Film Analysis

by Alford, Terry L.; Feldman, Leonard C.; Mayer, James W.

• ISBN13: 9780387292601
• ISBN10: 0387292608
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2007-06-30
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

Modern science and technology, from materials science to integrated circuit development, is directed toward the nanoscale. From thin films to field effect transistors, the emphasis is on reducing dimensions from the micro to the nanoscale. Fundamentals of Nanoscale Film Analysis concentrates on analysis of the structure and composition of the surface and the outer few tens to hundred nanometers in depth. It describes characterization techniques to quantify the structure, composition and depth distribution of materials with the use of energetic particles and photons. The book describes the fundamentals of materials characterization from the standpoint of the incident photons or particles which interrogate nanoscale structures. These induced reactions lead to the emission of a variety of detected of particles and photons. It is the energy and intensity of the detected beams that is the basis of the characterization of the materials. The array of experimental techniques used in nanoscale materials analysis covers a wide range of incident particle and detected beam interactions. Included are such important interactions as atomic collisions, Rutherford backscattering, ion channeling, diffraction, photon absorption, radiative and nonradiative transitions, and nuclear reactions. A variety of analytical and scanning probe microscopy techniques are presented in detail.

Table of Contents

Preface	p. xiii
An Overview: Concepts, Units, and the Bohr Atom	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Nomenclature	p. 2
Energies, Units, and Particles	p. 6
Particle-Wave Duality and Lattice Spacing	p. 8
The Bohr Model	p. 9
Problems	p. 10
Atomic Collisions and Backscattering Spectrometry	p. 12
Introduction	p. 12
Kinematics of Elastic Collisions	p. 13
Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry	p. 16
Scattering Cross Section and Impact Parameter	p. 17
Central Force Scattering	p. 18
Scattering Cross Section: Two-Body	p. 21
Deviations from Rutherford Scattering at Low and High Energy	p. 23
Low-Energy Ion Scattering	p. 24
Forward Recoil Spectrometry	p. 28
Center of Mass to Laboratory Transformation	p. 28
Problems	p. 31
Energy Loss of Light Ions and Backscattering Depth Profiles	p. 34
Introduction	p. 34
General Picture of Energy Loss and Units of Energy Loss	p. 34
Energy Loss of MeV Light Ions in Solids	p. 35
Energy Loss in Compounds-Bragg's Rule	p. 40
The Energy Width in Backscattering	p. 40
The Shape of the Backscattering Spectrum	p. 43
Depth Profiles with Rutherford Scattering	p. 45
Depth Resolution and Energy-Loss Straggling	p. 47
Hydrogen and Deuterium Depth Profiles	p. 50
Ranges of H and He Ions	p. 52
Sputtering and Limits to Sensitivity	p. 54
Summary of Scattering Relations	p. 55
Problems	p. 55
Sputter Depth Profiles and Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy	p. 59
Introduction	p. 59
Sputtering by Ion Bombardment-General Concepts	p. 60
Nuclear Energy Loss	p. 63
Sputtering Yield	p. 67
Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS)	p. 69
Secondary Neutral Mass Spectroscopy (SNMS)	p. 73
Preferential Sputtering and Depth Profiles	p. 75
Interface Broadening and Ion Mixing	p. 77
Thomas-Fermi Statistical Model of the Atom	p. 80
Problems	p. 81
Ion Channeling	p. 84
Introduction	p. 84
Channeling in Single Crystals	p. 84
Lattice Location of Impurities in Crystals	p. 88
Channeling Flux Distributions	p. 89
Surface Interaction via a Two-Atom Model	p. 92
The Surface Peak	p. 95
Substrate Shadowing: Epitaxial Au on Ag (111)	p. 97
Epitaxial Growth	p. 99
Thin Film Analysis	p. 101
Problems	p. 103
Electron-Electron Interactions and the Depth Sensitivity of Electron Spectroscopies	p. 105
Introduction	p. 105
Electron Spectroscopies: Energy Analysis	p. 105
Escape Depth and Detected Volume	p. 106
Inelastic Electron-Electron Collisions	p. 109
Electron Impact Ionization Cross Section	p. 110
Plasmons	p. 111
The Electron Mean Free Path	p. 113
Influence of Thin Film Morphology on Electron Attenuation	p. 114
Range of Electrons in Solids	p. 118
Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS)	p. 120
Bremsstrahlung	p. 124
Problems	p. 126
X-ray Diffraction	p. 129
Introduction	p. 129
Bragg's Law in Real Space	p. 130
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Measurements	p. 133
Texture Measurements in Polycrystalline Thin Films	p. 135
Strain Measurements in Epitaxial Layers	p. 137
Crystalline Structure	p. 141
Allowed Reflections and Relative Intensities	p. 143
Problems	p. 149
Electron Diffraction	p. 152
Introduction	p. 152
Reciprocal Space	p. 153
Laue Equations	p. 157
Bragg's Law	p. 158
Ewald Sphere Synthesis	p. 159
The Electron Microscope	p. 160
Indexing Diffraction Patterns	p. 166
Problems	p. 172
Photon Absorption in Solids and EXAFS	p. 174
Introduction	p. 174
The Schrodinger Equation	p. 174
Wave Functions	p. 176
Quantum Numbers, Electron Configuration, and Notation	p. 179
Transition Probability	p. 180
Photoelectric Effect-Square-Well Approximation	p. 181
Photoelectric Transition Probability for a Hydrogenic Atom	p. 184
X-ray Absorption	p. 185
Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS)	p. 189
Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory	p. 192
Problems	p. 197
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy	p. 199
Introduction	p. 199
Experimental Considerations	p. 199
Kinetic Energy of Photoelectrons	p. 203
Photoelectron Energy Spectrum	p. 204
Binding Energy and Final-State Effects	p. 206
Binding Energy Shifts-Chemical Shifts	p. 208
Quantitative Analysis	p. 210
Problems	p. 211
Radiative Transitions and the Electron Microprobe	p. 214
Introduction	p. 214
Nomenclature in X-Ray Spectroscopy	p. 215
Dipole Selection Rules	p. 215
Electron Microprobe	p. 216
Transition Rate for Spontaneous Emission	p. 220
Transition Rate for K[alpha] Emission in Ni	p. 220
Electron Microprobe: Quantitative Analysis	p. 222
Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE)	p. 226
Evaluation of the Transition Probability for Radiative Transitions	p. 227
Calculation of the K[Beta]/ K[alpha] Ratio	p. 230
Problems	p. 231
Nonradiative Transitions and Auger Electron Spectroscopy	p. 234
Introduction	p. 234
Auger Transitions	p. 234
Yield of Auger Electrons and Fluorescence Yield	p. 241
Atomic Level Width and Lifetimes	p. 243
Auger Electron Spectroscopy	p. 244
Quantitative Analysis	p. 248
Auger Depth Profiles	p. 249
Problems	p. 252
Nuclear Techniques: Activation Analysis and Prompt Radiation Analysis	p. 255
Introduction	p. 255
Q Values and Kinetic Energies	p. 259
Radioactive Decay	p. 262
Radioactive Decay Law	p. 265
Radionuclide Production	p. 266
Activation Analysis	p. 266
Prompt Radiation Analysis	p. 267
Problems	p. 274
Scanning Probe Microscopy	p. 277
Introduction	p. 277
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy	p. 279
Atomic Force Microscopy	p. 284
K[subscript M] for [superscript 4]He[superscript +] as Projectile and Integer Target Mass	p. 291
Rutherford Scattering Cross Section of the Elements for 1 MeV [superscript 4]He[superscript +]	p. 294
[superscript 4]He[superscript +] Stopping Cross Sections	p. 296
Electron Configurations and Ionization Potentials of Atoms	p. 299
Atomic Scattering Factors	p. 302
Electron Binding Energies	p. 305
X-Ray Wavelengths (nm)	p. 309
Mass Absorption Coefficient and Densities	p. 312
KLL Auger Energies (eV)	p. 316
Table of the Elements	p. 319
Table of Fluoresence Yields for K, L, and M Shells	p. 325
Physical Constants, Conversions, and Useful Combinations	p. 327
Acronyms	p. 328
Index	p. 330
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