Geomatics

by Kavanagh, Barry

• ISBN13: 9780130322890
• ISBN10: 013032289X
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-01-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

This state-of-the-art exploration of the theory and applications of geometrics recognizes the expansion and advances in the fieldandthe broadening of the allied disciplines that have a direct interest in the newest technological approaches to geo-data collection, processing, analysis, management, and presentation. Exceptionally well-written by a teacher/surveyor manager with many years of experience, it provides a comprehensiveinsider'sview of what's important, what works, and how it all fits together. Divided into three partsFundamentals, Remote Sensing, and Engineering Applicationsit covers both traditional topics in surveying and the more recently developed topics in geographic information systems (GIS), global positioning (GPS) and airborne imagery, together with satellite imagery (remote sensing)all with a focus on applications of interest to the fields of in civil, surveying, and geological engineering, physical geography, environmental, natural resources, etc. Features an appendix of 11 field projects involving the fundamentals of taping, leveling, and angle acquisition, and applications in data gathering, stake-outs for buildings, curves, and pipelines.An Introduction to Geometrics. Distance MeasurementTaping. Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM). Leveling. Angles and Directions. Transits/Theodolites. Traverse Surveys. Electronic Surveying Measurements. Topographic Surveying and Mapping. Geogramic Information Systems (GIS). Global Positioning Systems (GPS). Control Surveys. Land Surveying. Airborne Imagery. Satellite Imagery. Highway Curves. Construction Surveying.For anyone interested in the state-of-the-art theory and applications of Geomatics/Surveying.

Table of Contents

PART I FUNDAMENTALS
An Introduction to Geomatics	2	(20)
Geomatics Defined	2	(1)
Branches of Geomatics	2	(1)
Geomatics Model	2	(2)
Data Collection	4	(4)
Data Collection Measurement Reference	8	(2)
Data Sorting	10	(1)
Data Management and Design	10	(1)
Data Plotting	11	(1)
Units of Measurement	11	(1)
Distance and Angle Measurement	11	(2)
Preliminary Field Surveys	13	(1)
Accuracy and Precision	14	(1)
Systematic and Random Errors	14	(1)
Mistakes	15	(1)
Stationing	15	(1)
Field Notes	16	(1)
Types of Surveying Projects	17	(1)
History of Surveying	17	(5)
Questions	21	(1)
Distance Measurement (Taping)	22	(23)
Methods of Distance Determination	22	(1)
Direct Measurement: General Background	22	(1)
Tacheometry	23	(1)
Gunter's Chain	24	(1)
Taping	24	(2)
Taping Accessories	26	(3)
Taping Techniques	29	(3)
Standard Conditions for the Use of Steel Tapes	32	(1)
Taping Corrections: General Background	32	(1)
Systematic Slope Corrections	32	(2)
Erroneous Tape Length Corrections	34	(1)
Temperature Corrections	35	(1)
Invar Steel Tapes	36	(1)
Tension and Sag Corrections	36	(4)
Random Errors Associated with Systematic Taping Errors	40	(1)
Random Taping Errors	41	(1)
Techniques for Ordinary Taping Precision	41	(1)
Mistakes in Taping	42	(3)
Problems	43	(2)
Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)	45	(12)
General Background	45	(1)
Principles of EDM	45	(3)
EDM Instrument Characteristics	48	(1)
Prisms	48	(1)
EDM Instrument Accuracies	49	(1)
EDM Instrument Operation	50	(2)
Geometry of EDM	52	(2)
EDM Without Reflecting Prisms	54	(3)
Problems	56	(1)
Leveling	57	(38)
General Background	57	(1)
Theory of Differential Leveling	57	(2)
Curvature and Refraction	59	(1)
Types of Surveying Levels	60	(7)
Leveling Rods	67	(2)
Definitions for Differential Leveling	69	(1)
Techniques of Leveling	70	(3)
Benchmark Leveling (Vertical Control Surveys)	73	(5)
Profile and Cross-Section Leveling	78	(3)
Reciprocal Leveling	81	(1)
Peg Test	82	(2)
Three-Wire Leveling	84	(2)
Trigonometric Leveling	86	(2)
Suggestions for Rod Work	88	(1)
Suggestions for Instrument Work	88	(1)
Mistakes in Leveling	89	(6)
Problems	89	(6)
Angles and Directions	95	(17)
General Background	95	(1)
Reference Directions for Vertical Angles	95	(1)
Meridians	95	(1)
Horizontal Angles	95	(2)
Azimuths	97	(1)
Bearings	97	(1)
Relationship Between Bearings and Azimuths	98	(1)
Reverse Directions	99	(1)
Azimuth Computations	100	(4)
Bearing Computations	104	(1)
Comments on Bearings and Azimuths	105	(1)
Magnetic Direction	106	(6)
Problems	110	(2)
Transits and Theodolites	112	(27)
General Background	112	(1)
Repeating Optical Theodolites	112	(3)
Theodolite Setup	115	(2)
Angle Measurement with an Optical Theodolite	117	(1)
Electronic Theodolites	117	(3)
Direction Optical Theodolites	120	(2)
Angles Measured with a Direction Theodolite	122	(1)
Geometry of all Theodolites	122	(1)
Adjustment of the Theodolite	122	(5)
The Engineers' Transit	127	(1)
Circles and Verniers	128	(2)
Telescope	130	(1)
Leveling Head	131	(1)
Plate Levels	131	(1)
Transit Setup	131	(1)
Measuring Angles by Repetition (Vernier Transit)	132	(2)
Laying Off Angles	134	(1)
Prolonging a Straight Line	135	(1)
Interlining (Bucking-In)	135	(1)
Intersection of Two Straight Lines	136	(1)
Prolonging a Measured Line by Triangulation Over an Obstacle	137	(1)
Prolonging a Line Past an Obstacle	137	(2)
Traverse Surveys	139	(37)
General Background	139	(1)
Open Traverse	139	(1)
Closed Traverse	139	(1)
Balancing Angles	140	(1)
Latitudes and Departures	141	(2)
Computation of Latitudes and Departures	143	(6)
Traverse Precision and Accuracy	149	(1)
Traverse Adjustments	150	(1)
Compass Rule Adjustment	150	(3)
Effects of Traverse Adjustments on the Original Data	153	(1)
Omitted Measurements	153	(3)
Rectangular Coordinates of Traverse Stations	156	(3)
Geometry of Rectangular Coordinates	159	(3)
Illustrative Problems in Rectangular Coordinates	162	(9)
Area of a Closed Traverse by the Coordinate Method	171	(3)
Summary of Traverse Computations	174	(2)
Problems	174	(2)
Electronic Surveying Measurement	176	(29)
General Background	176	(1)
Total Stations	176	(5)
Total Station Field Techniques	181	(6)
Field Procedures for Total Stations in Topographic Surveys	187	(5)
Field-Generated Graphics	192	(3)
Construction Layout Using Total Stations	195	(1)
Motorized Total Stations	196	(6)
Overview of Computerized Surveying Data Systems	202	(3)
Questions	204	(1)
Topographic Surveying and Mapping	205	(31)
General Background	205	(1)
Maps and Plans	205	(1)
Scales and Precision	206	(2)
Plan Plotting	208	(4)
Contours	212	(3)
Summary of Contour Characteristics	215	(1)
Topographic (Planimetric) Surveys	216	(5)
Cross Sections and Profiles	221	(2)
Cross Sections, End Areas, and Volumes	223	(4)
Prismoidal Formula	227	(1)
Construction Volumes	228	(1)
Area Computations	229	(2)
Area by Graphical Analysis	231	(5)
Problems	233	(3)
Geographic Information Systems	236	(24)
A General Background	236	(1)
The Evolution from Mapping to Geographic Systems (GISs)	236	(4)
Components of a GIS	240	(1)
Data Capture	241	(1)
Sources for GIS Data	241	(1)
Georeferencing	241	(1)
Database Management	242	(1)
Metadata	243	(1)
Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS)	243	(1)
Data Analysis	244	(1)
Spatial Entities or Features	244	(2)
Typical Data Representation	246	(1)
Spatial Data Models	246	(2)
GIS Data Structures	248	(2)
Topology	250	(3)
Data Analysis Summary	253	(2)
GIS Applications	255	(2)
GIS Glossary	257	(1)
Internet Websites	258	(1)
Publications	258	(2)
Questions	259	(1)
Global Positioning Systems (GPSs)	260	(37)
General Background	260	(1)
Global Positioning	261	(1)
Receivers	262	(1)
Satellites	263	(1)
Satellite Signals	264	(1)
Position Measurements	265	(9)
Errors	274	(1)
Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS)	274	(1)
Canadian Active Control System (ACS)	275	(1)
Survey Planning	276	(5)
GPS Field Procedures	281	(4)
GPS Applications	285	(4)
Vertical Positioning	289	(4)
Conclusion	293	(1)
GPS Glossary	293	(2)
Recommended Reading and Related Websites	295	(2)
Control Surveys	297	(51)
General Background	297	(4)
Plane Coordinate Grid	301	(5)
Lambert Projection	306	(1)
Transverse Mercator Grid System	306	(2)
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid System	308	(4)
Use of Grid Coordinates	312	(7)
Illustrative Examples	319	(7)
Horizontal Control Techniques	326	(1)
Project Control	327	(7)
Control Survey Markers	334	(2)
Direction of a Line by Observation on Polaris	336	(3)
Time	339	(2)
Polaris	341	(2)
Procedure for Observing Polaris	343	(1)
Computation Technique for Azimuth Determination-Tabular Solution	344	(2)
Direction of a Line by Gyrotheodolite	346	(2)
Questions	347	(1)
Problems	347	(1)
Land Surveying	348	(35)
General Background	348	(2)
Public Land Surveys	350	(15)
Property Conveyance	365	(6)
Rural Land Surveys	371	(6)
Urban Land Surveys	377	(4)
Cadastral Surveying	381	(2)
Problems	382	(1)
PART II REMOTE SENSING	383	(56)
Airborne Imagery	384	(34)
General Background	384	(1)
Aerial Camera Systems	384	(4)
Photographic Scale	388	(2)
Flying Heights and Altitude	390	(1)
Relief (Radial) Displacement	391	(1)
Flight Lines and Photograph Overlap	392	(2)
Ground Control for Mapping	394	(2)
Mosaics	396	(1)
Stereoscopic Viewing and Parallax	397	(5)
Photogrammetric Stereoscopic Plotting Techniques	402	(4)
Airborne Digital Imagery	406	(1)
Orthophotos	407	(3)
Lidar Mapping	410	(4)
Aerial Surveying and Photogrammetric Mapping	414	(1)
Aerial Photography Interpretation	415	(1)
Additional Sources of Information	416	(2)
Questions	416	(1)
Problems	416	(2)
Satellite Imagery	418	(21)
General Background	418	(1)
Techniques of Remote Sensing	419	(1)
Electromagnetic Spectrum	419	(3)
Selection of Radiation Sensors	422	(1)
An Introduction to Image Analysis	423	(3)
Classification	426	(1)
Feature Extraction	426	(1)
Ground-Truth or Accuracy Assessment	427	(1)
Remote-Sensing Satellites	428	(2)
Imaging Radar Satellites	430	(3)
Satellite and Aerial Imagery	433	(2)
Satellite Websites	435	(2)
General Reference Websites	437	(1)
Additional Reading	437	(2)
Questions	437	(2)
PART III ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS	439	(92)
Highway Curves	440	(50)
Route Surveys	440	(1)
Circular Curves: General	440	(1)
Circular Curve Geometry	441	(5)
Circular Curve Deflections	446	(1)
Chord Calculations	447	(1)
Metric Considerations	448	(1)
Field Procedure	448	(1)
Moving up on the Curve	449	(1)
Offset Curves	450	(5)
Compound Circular Curves	455	(1)
Reverse Curves	456	(1)
Vertical Curves: General Background	457	(2)
Geometric Properties of the Parabola	459	(1)
Computation of the High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve	459	(1)
Procedure for Computing a Vertical Curve	460	(3)
Design Considerations	463	(1)
Spiral Curves: General Background	464	(2)
Spiral Curve Computations	466	(6)
Spiral Layout Procedure Summary	472	(5)
Approximate Solution for Spiral Problems	477	(2)
Superelevation: General Background	479	(1)
Superelevation Design	479	(11)
Questions	487	(1)
Problems	487	(3)
Construction Surveys	490	(41)
General Background	490	(1)
Accuracy and Mistakes	491	(1)
Construction Control	492	(1)
Measurement for Interim and Final Payments	493	(1)
Final Measurements for As-Built Drawings	493	(1)
Municipal Roads Construction	493	(12)
Highway Construction	505	(8)
Sewer and Tunnel Construction	513	(11)
Culvert Construction	524	(1)
Building Construction	525	(3)
Other Construction Surveys	528	(1)
Construction Survey Specifications	528	(3)
Questions	528	(1)
Problems	528	(3)
Appendix A Random Errors	531	(13)
Appendix B Trigonometric Definitions and Identities	544	(4)
Appendix C Glossary	548	(8)
Appendix D Answers to Selected Chapter Problems	556	(5)
Appendix E Internet Websites	561	(2)
Appendix F Examples of Modern Technology	563	(1)
Appendix G Typical Field Projects	564	(15)
Index	579

Excerpts

Not so long ago, many of the topics in this text were found mostly in texts simply titled Surveying orSurveying and Mapping Technologicaladvances have not only changed traditional data collection, processing, analysis, and presentation, they have changed the very way that surveyors look at their discipline. The surveying and mapping field is an excellent example of a discipline forever altered by new and expanding technologies.Geomaticsis a relatively new term that describes this new and emerging science and technology that brings together all forms of geospatial data activities: collection, processing, analysis, design, and plotting (as well as other presentation techniques). The catalyst for the centralization of these activities is the modern computer with all its peripheral equipment. (Please see Figure 1.1 for a geomatics data model that illustrates this concept.)The teaching of surveying and related disciplines has also changed. This now much broader discipline still has to be covered in much the same class time as previously allocated. Because the advances in this discipline are not unique--advances are occurring in all disciplines--the competitive demands for additions to overall college curricula content continue unabated. While the surveying/mapping fields themselves are changing, we now find that previously separate fields such as civil engineering, surveying, and geological engineering; physical geography; and environmental and natural resources have developed common interests in areas such as field data collection, GIS, and remote sensing. This text has been designed to recognize both the expanding field of surveying and the broadened scope of interest in surveying activities.This text has been divided into three parts: Fundamentals, Remote Sensing, and Engineering Applications. Part I, Fundamentals, covers the basics, such as geomatics overview, taping and EDM, leveling, angles/directions, theodolite, traverse surveys and computations, electronic surveying, topographic surveying and manual plotting, geographic information systems (GIS), control surveys, and land surveying. Discussion of electronic surveying measurements (Chapter 8) has been delayed until after the chapter on traverse computations and coordinate geometry (Chapter 7) so that the reader may first receive a grounding in these concepts before encountering the available total station onboard applications software.Part II, Remote Sensing, covers both airborne and satellite imagery. Chapter 14 describes the processes involved in aerial photography acquisition, photogrammetric analysis, and image interpretation. The more recent (2001/2002) developments in digital airborne imagery are also discussed. Chapter 15 introduces the reader to the acquisition and processing of satellite imagery.Part III, Engineering Applications, covers highway curves and construction surveying techniques, topics that will be of interest to readers enrolled in engineering and engineering technology programs. The appendixes cover random errors and basic trigonometry. They also provide a glossary, answers to selected problems, Internet websites, a full-color insert depicting modern geomatics technology, and detailed descriptions (including sample field notes) for nine typical field projects.Geomatics is a very broad field. This text was designed for use by those studying in most fields involved in geomatics. Not all college programs will cover all material in the text in one course. Instead, they will concentrate on those chapters of primary interest to their specific program. Content in chapters that are not included in specifically tailored geomatics curricula will be valuable for reference purposes for later curriculum subjects and for postgraduate and professional activities. Some programs will not go into the same depth of analysis and instead will approach selected topics from a more descriptive point o