Geometric, Physical, and Visual Optics

by Keating

• ISBN13: 9780750672627
• ISBN10: 0750672625
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-11-06
• Publisher: BUTTERWORTH HEINEMANN

Summary

* Fundamental text for an optometric curriculum, a student studying for the optometry boards, or a person interested in optics and vision * Uses the vergence-dioptric power-wavefront approach from the beginning * Emphasizes conceptual understanding and development of intuition

Table of Contents

Preface to the Second Edition	xiii
Preface to the First Edition	xv
Optics, Light, and Vision
The Search for Solutions	1	(1)
The Scope of Optics and its Subfields	2	(1)
An Overview of the Human Visual Process	2	(1)
Perceptual Aspects of the Visual Process	3	(1)
The Eye	3	(1)
Electromagnetic Radiation	4	(1)
Wavelengths and Color	5	(1)
Absorption	6	(1)
Reflection	6	(1)
Scattering	7	(1)
The Speed of Light in a Medium	8	(1)
Refraction	8	(2)
Rectilinear Propagation, Shadows, and Mirages	10	(3)
Problems	11	(2)
The Geometric Behavior of Light
Point Sources, Wavefronts, and Rays	13	(1)
Converging Wavefronts, Point Images, and Blur Circles	14	(1)
Diverging Wavefronts, Plane Waves, and Optical Infinity	15	(1)
The Concept of Vergence	16	(1)
Vergence: Conversion Factors	17	(2)
Upstream and Downstream Vergence Changes	19	(2)
Generalized or Reduced Vergence	21	(1)
Extended Sources and Beams	21	(1)
Extended Images and Blur	22	(1)
Pinholes or Image Formation by Blur Minimization	23	(2)
Refracting States of the Eye	25	(4)
Problems	26	(3)
Optical Objects and Images
Optically Real versus Physically Real Objects	29	(1)
Optically Real versus Physically Real Images	30	(1)
Real Images as Objects for the Eye	31	(1)
Virtual Images	32	(1)
Virtual Objects	33	(1)
Object and Image Summary	34	(1)
The Image for System 1 is the Object for System 2	34	(1)
Conjugate Points and the Principle of Reversibility	35	(1)
Object Space/Image Space	36	(3)
Problems	37	(2)
Thin Lenses and Ray Diagrams
How Spherical Lenses Work	39	(2)
Optical Axis	41	(1)
Thin Lenses	42	(1)
Secondary Focal Point (F2)	42	(1)
Primary Focal Point (F1)	43	(1)
Equidistance of Focal Points for a Thin Lens in Air	43	(1)
Predictable Rays/Converging Lenses/Off-Axis Object Points	44	(2)
Nodal Rays	46	(1)
Further Examples: Converging Lenses	47	(1)
Predictable Rays/Diverging Lenses/Off-Axis Object Points	48	(2)
Common Features	50	(1)
Scaling of Ray Diagrams	51	(2)
Problems	52	(1)
Thin Lens Equations
Thin Lens Vergence Equation	53	(1)
Object and Image Distances	54	(1)
Dioptric Power: Focal Length Relationships	55	(1)
Lateral Magnification	56	(1)
Examples	56	(6)
Boundary Role of the Focal Points	62	(1)
The Symmetry Points	62	(2)
Unit Lateral Magnification	64	(1)
Object Movement/Image Movement	64	(1)
Erect and Inverted Relationships: Single Lenses	65	(1)
Two-Lens Systems	66	(1)
Two Thin Lenses in Contact	67	(3)
Bundles, Beams, and Lateral Magnification	70	(1)
Image Sizes for Distant Objects	70	(2)
Reversibility and Finding the Object	72	(3)
Problems	73	(2)
Thin Lens Eye Models
Emmetropes	75	(1)
Myopes	76	(2)
Hyperopes	78	(1)
Spectacle Lens Corrections	79	(3)
Lens Effectivity Terminology	82	(1)
Ocular Accommodative Demand	82	(1)
Near Point and Range of Clear Vision: Myope	83	(1)
Range of Clear Vision: Emmetrope	84	(1)
Range of Clear Vision: Hyperope	84	(1)
Range of Clear Vision: Summary	85	(2)
Spectacle Accommodative Demand	87	(1)
Ocular Accommodative Demand through Spectacles	87	(2)
The Downstream Vergence Equation	89	(1)
Approximation for Accommodation through Spectacle Lenses	90	(2)
Accommodation through Contact Lenses	92	(1)
Over/Under Minus or Plus	93	(1)
Range of Clear Vision through Various Lenses	94	(1)
Retinal Image Sizes	95	(1)
Retinal Image Sizes: Spectacle versus Contact Lenses	95	(4)
Problems	97	(2)
Single Spherical Refracting Interfaces
Convex/Concave Terminology	99	(1)
Sagittas and the Sagittal Approximation	100	(2)
Derivation of the Vergence Equation	102	(1)
Dioptric Power	103	(2)
Focal Points	105	(4)
The Nodal Point	109	(1)
Lateral Magnification	110	(1)
Imaging Examples	111	(3)
The Symmetry Points	114	(2)
Unit Magnification	116	(1)
The Nodal Plane	116	(1)
Strange Cases	117	(2)
Object Space/Image Space	119	(1)
Imaging a Distant Object	120	(1)
Changing Media without Changing Curvature	121	(1)
Lens Clock Readings	121	(4)
Problems	123	(2)
Plane Refracting Interfaces and Reduced Systems
Plane Interfaces as a Special Case of Spherical Interfaces	125	(1)
Diverging and Converging Wavefronts	126	(1)
Lateral Magnification	127	(1)
Ray Tracing through a Flat Slab in Equi-index Media	128	(1)
Flat Slabs	129	(2)
Converging Light and Reduced Systems	131	(1)
Single Spherical Refracting Interfaces and Reduced Systems	132	(2)
Systems with Multiple Spherical Surfaces	134	(4)
Front and Back Vertex Powers	138	(2)
Vertex Neutralization	140	(1)
Reduced Angles	141	(2)
Problems	141	(2)
Lenses Revisited
Lens Shapes	143	(1)
Thin Lens Power	143	(2)
Thick Lenses: Front and Back Vertex Powers	145	(1)
Thin Lenses in Different Media	146	(1)
Another Eye Model	147	(1)
Exploding a Single Spherical Refracting Interface	148	(1)
Contact Lenses	149	(1)
The Tear Lens Effect	150	(1)
Newton's Equations	151	(3)
Axial Magnification	154	(3)
Problems	154	(3)
Astigmatism: On Axis
Introduction	157	(1)
Cylindrical Lenses	157	(3)
Standard Axis Notation	160	(2)
Perpendicularly Crossed Cylindrical Lenses	162	(3)
Collapsing the Conoid by Equalizing the Cross Cylinders	165	(1)
Equivalent Combinations and Transposition	165	(3)
Toric Surfaces	168	(2)
Extended Objects and Multiple Conoids	170	(2)
The Circle of Least Confusion and the Spherical Equivalent	172	(2)
Virtual Line Images	174	(1)
Through a Glass Astigmatically	175	(1)
Classification and Correction of Astigmats	175	(4)
The Clock Dial Chart	179	(1)
Jackson Cross Cylinder Power Refinement	180	(2)
Effectivity and Spherocylindrical Lenses	182	(1)
Accommodation and Spherocylindrical Corrections	183	(4)
Problems	184	(3)
Prisms
Introduction	187	(2)
Total Internal Reflection	189	(3)
Deviation by a Thick Prism	192	(3)
Minimum Deviation	195	(2)
Deviation at Normal Incidence	197	(1)
Thick Prism Comparisons	198	(1)
Thin Prisms	198	(1)
Ophthalmic Base Directions	199	(1)
Prism-Diopters	200	(1)
Thin Prism Combinations	201	(2)
Centrads	203	(1)
The Risley Prism	204	(1)
Prism Effectivity	204	(2)
Fresnel Prisms	206	(1)
Reflecting Prisms	207	(4)
Problems	208	(3)
Prism Properties of Lenses
Prentice's Rule	211	(3)
Prism-Lens Combinations	214	(2)
Prism in Cylindrical Lenses	216	(2)
Rotational Deviations by a Cylindrical Lens	218	(1)
Motions of Hand Neutralization	219	(1)
Motions of Retinoscope Reflex	220	(4)
Fresnel Lenses	224	(1)
Prism Effectivity with Thin Lenses	225	(8)
Problems	230	(3)
Prism and Dioptric Power in Off-Axis Meridians
Curvature and Torsion	233	(1)
Stenopeic slits	233	(1)
Curvature and Lens Clock Readings	234	(4)
Torsional Component of Dioptric Power	238	(1)
Isothickness Curves	238	(3)
Matrix Form of Prentice's Rule	241	(2)
Prism in Spherocylindrical Lenses	243	(3)
Matrix Properties and Expanded Power Crosses	246	(1)
Decentration with Spherocylindrical Lenses	247	(2)
Prism for Combined Spherocylindrical Lenses	249	(1)
Finding S C x &thetas; from the Dioptric Power Matrix	250	(1)
Combining Obliquely Crossed Spherocylindrical Lenses	251	(3)
Over-Refraction	254	(2)
The Vector Addition Method	256	(2)
The Residual Refractive Error	258	(1)
Axis Refinement with a JCC	259	(1)
The Vergence Matrix	260	(1)
Average Strength of a Spherocylindrical Lens	261	(2)
Three Dimensional Dioptric Power Representations	263	(4)
Problems	264	(3)
Reflection
Mirrors and Other Reflecting Interfaces	267	(2)
Focal Points	269	(2)
Ray Diagrams and the Nodal Ray	271	(5)
Vergence Equations	276	(1)
Imaging Examples in Air	276	(3)
Imaging Examples for n ≠ 1	279	(3)
Through a Glass Darkly	282	(1)
Unit Lateral Magnification and the Radiuscope	283	(1)
Keratometry	284	(1)
Plane Mirrors	285	(1)
Left-Right Inversion	286	(1)
Ghost Images and Partially Silvered Mirrors	286	(1)
Equivalent Mirrors	287	(8)
Problems	292	(3)
The Gauss System
Introduction	295	(1)
The Secondary Principal Plane	295	(2)
The Primary Principal Plane	297	(2)
Ray Diagrams	299	(1)
Conjugacy of the Principal Planes	300	(3)
Vergence Equations	303	(2)
Power and Focal Length Relations	305	(2)
Systems in Air	307	(1)
The Symmetry Points	308	(1)
Reduced Systems	309	(1)
The Nodal Points	310	(3)
The Cardinal Points and Reversibility	313	(1)
SSRI and Thin Lens as a Gauss System	314	(1)
Newton's Equation	315	(1)
The Nodal Slide	316	(1)
Thick Lenses	317	(3)
Special Thick Lens Examples	320	(2)
Summary of the Important Equations	322	(3)
Problems	322	(3)
System Matrices
The Translation Matrix	325	(1)
The Refraction Matrix	326	(1)
The System Matrix	327	(3)
Determinant Condition	330	(1)
Subsystem Matrices	331	(1)
Two Lens Systems	332	(1)
The Object-Image Matrix	333	(1)
The Front Vertex to Secondary Focal Plane Matrix	334	(2)
Ametropic Eyes	336	(1)
The Gullstrand #1 Schematic Eye	337	(2)
Vertex Vergence Relations	339	(1)
Derivation of the Gauss Equation	340	(1)
Conversion to abcd notation	340	(1)
Astigmatic Systems	341	(2)
Asymmetric Equivalent Dioptric Power	343	(4)
Problems	344	(3)
Angular Magnification
Relative Size Magnification	347	(1)
Angular Magnification without a Physical Size Change	348	(1)
Relative Distance Magnification	349	(1)
Plus Lens as a Simple Magnifier: Intuitive Method	350	(1)
Plus Lens as a Collimating Magnifier	351	(2)
The Conventional Reference Distance	353	(1)
Collimating Magnifier: Object to Eye Distance Unchanged	354	(1)
Magnifiers and Maximum Accommodation	355	(1)
The Badal Principle	356	(1)
General Equation for a Simple Magnifier	357	(1)
The Compound Microscope	358	(3)
Equivalent Power Formulation for Magnification	361	(1)
Afocal Telescopes	362	(2)
Alternate Afocal Telescope Equations	364	(2)
Erecting Systems in Keplerian Telescopes	366	(1)
Vergence Amplification through Afocal Telescopes	367	(1)
Telemicroscopes	368	(1)
Magnification Terminology	369	(1)
Equation Summary	370	(3)
Problems	370	(3)
Spectacle Magnification and Relative Spectacle Magnification
The Aperture Stop and the Entrance Pupil	373	(5)
The Exit Pupil and Blurred Image Sizes	378	(3)
Thin Lens Spectacle Magnification	381	(3)
Spectacle Magnification Approximation	384	(1)
Telescope Concepts and Spectacle Magnification	384	(1)
Magnification Properties of a Thick Plano Lens	385	(1)
Shape and Power Factors	386	(2)
Shape and Power Factor Approximations	388	(1)
Comparison of Different Lenses for the Same Eye	389	(1)
Gauss Formulation for Spectacle Magnification	390	(2)
Telescopes for Ametropes	392	(1)
Relative Spectacle Magnification	393	(5)
Prism Effectivity and Dynamic Magnification	398	(1)
Meridional Telescopes	399	(2)
Power Factor in Spherocylindrical Corrections	401	(1)
Summary of Important Equations	402	(3)
Problems	403	(2)
Stops and Related Effects
Field of View---Two Component Systems	405	(7)
Field of View of a Thin Collimating Magnifier	412	(1)
Multi-Component Systems	413	(4)
Telescope Entrance and Exit Pupils	417	(3)
Galilean Telescope Field of View	420	(1)
Keplerian Telescope Field of View	420	(3)
Terrestrial Telescopes	423	(1)
Direct and Indirect Ophthalmoscopes	424	(6)
Dynamic or Foveal Field of View	430	(2)
Film Exposure and the F-Number	432	(2)
Cosine To the Fourth Law	434	(1)
Depth of Field	435	(3)
Depth of Focus	438	(3)
Problems	438	(3)
Aberrations
Detriments to Image Quality	441	(1)
Dispersion and Chromatic Aberration	441	(1)
Longitudinal and Lateral Chromatic Aberration	442	(1)
Standard Wavelengths and Abbe Number	443	(2)
The Achromatic Doublet	445	(1)
Achromatic Prisms	446	(1)
Thick Lenses and Chromatic Aberration	446	(1)
Separated Lenses of the Same Material	447	(1)
The Monochromatic Wavefront Aberration	448	(1)
The Seidel or Third Order Aberrations	449	(1)
Spherical Aberration	450	(2)
Coma	452	(3)
Radial Astigmatism	455	(6)
Curvature of Field	461	(2)
Distortion	463	(1)
Lens Design	464	(1)
Oblique Central Refraction for Spherocylindrical Lenses with Horizontal and Vertical Principal Meridians	465	(1)
Oblique Central Refraction in Spherocylindrical Lenses with Oblique Principal Meridians	466	(2)
Mirrors	468	(1)
Taylor and Zernike Classifications	468	(3)
Problems	468	(3)
Waves and Superposition
Introduction	471	(1)
Basic Wave Properties	471	(2)
Harmonic Waves	473	(1)
Intensity	474	(1)
Frequency Invariance and Wavelength Changes	475	(1)
Superposition	476	(2)
Interference in a Ripple Tank	478	(1)
Standing Waves	479	(1)
Coherence	479	(1)
Young's Double-Slit Experiment	480	(2)
Partial Coherence and Fringe Visibility	482	(2)
Acuity Testing of the Visual Pathways by Interference Fringes	484	(1)
Other Methods for Producing Interference	484	(1)
Speckles and Laser Refraction	485	(2)
Thin Film Interference	487	(1)
Phase Changes at Reflection	488	(1)
Soap Films	489	(1)
Antireflection Coatings	490	(2)
Interference Filters	492	(1)
Newton's Rings	493	(2)
Problems	493	(2)
Diffraction
The Huygens-Fresnel Principle	495	(1)
Single-Slit Diffraction	496	(3)
Diffraction by a Square Aperture	499	(1)
Diffraction by a Circular Aperture	499	(1)
Changing from a Square to a Circular Aperture	500	(2)
Fraunhofer versus Fresnel Diffraction	502	(2)
Diffraction Limit on Resolution	504	(2)
Diffraction and Acuity	506	(1)
Diffraction Halos	507	(1)
Apodized Circular Aperture	507	(3)
Diffraction Gratings	510	(2)
Simple Observations	512	(1)
Iridescence in Nature	512	(1)
Sinusoidal Amplitude Grating	512	(1)
Zone Plates	513	(4)
Ophthalmic Diffractive Lenses	517	(1)
Holography	517	(3)
Snell's Law from Huygens' Principle	520	(3)
Problems	521	(2)
Scattering, Absorption, Dispersion, and Polarization
Dipole Radiation	523	(1)
Incoherent Scattering	523	(1)
Rayleigh Scattering	524	(1)
Multiple Incoherent Scattering	525	(3)
Coherent Scattering	528	(1)
Intraocular Light Scatter	529	(1)
Scattering and Selective Absorption	529	(1)
Resonance Radiation	530	(1)
Dispersion	531	(1)
Group versus Phase Velocity	532	(1)
Polarization Fundamentals	533	(1)
Polaroid	534	(1)
Polarization Plane Rotation by Polaroids	535	(1)
Polarization by Reflection	536	(1)
Polarization by Scattering	537	(1)
Birefringence	537	(2)
Circular Polarization	539	(1)
Phase Retarders	540	(1)
Circular Polarizers	541	(1)
Optical Activity and Induced Effects	541	(1)
Binocular Vision and Polarized Light	542	(1)
Ocular Birefringence and Haidinger's Brush	542	(3)
Problems	543	(2)
Emission, Absorption, Photons, and Lasers
The Doppler Shift	545	(1)
Blackbody Radiation	545	(3)
Photons	548	(2)
Bohr Model of the Atom	550	(2)
Fluorescence and Phosphorescence	552	(1)
Stimulated Emission	553	(1)
Laser Theory	554	(4)
Gaussian Laser Beams	558	(4)
Common Lasers	562	(2)
Ophthalmic Laser Surgery	564	(2)
Laser Safety	566	(1)
Photons and Probability	566	(1)
Uncertainty	567	(1)
Diffraction and Single Photons	568	(1)
Interference and Single Photons	568	(2)
Photon Finale	570	(1)
Problems	570	(1)
Spatial Distribution of Optical Information
Spatial Frequency	571	(1)
Sine versus Square Wave Gratings	571	(2)
The Modulation Transfer Function	573	(1)
Periodic Gratings and Linear Systems	574	(3)
Spread Functions and the MTF	577	(3)
MTFs of Various Systems	580	(2)
Coupled Systems	582	(1)
General Objects	583	(1)
A Nonlinear Example	583	(1)
MTFs in terms of cycles per degree	584	(1)
The Coherent Transfer Function	584	(1)
Abbe Theory of Image Formation	584	(2)
Spatial Filtering	586	(2)
Frequency Doubling of Laser Light	588	(3)
Problems	588	(3)
Appendix A: Trigonometry Review	591	(4)
Appendix B: Basic Matrix Algebra	595	(4)
Answers to Selected Problems	599	(4)
Index	603