The Global Positioning System

by Parkinson, Bradford W.; Spilker, James J.

• ISBN13: 9781563471070
• ISBN10: 1563471078
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1996-01-01
• Publisher: Amer Inst of Aeronautics &

Summary

Volume 2 concentrates on two aspects: augmentations to GPS and detailed descriptions of applications. It also expands on GPS explanations of supplements and augmentations to the systems.

Table of Contents

Preface	xxxi
Part III. Differential GPS and Integrity Monitoring
Differential GPS	3	(48)
Bradford W. Parkinson
Per K. Enge
Introduction	3	(4)
Standard Positioning Service Users	3	(1)
Precise Positioning Service Users	4	(1)
Major Categories of Differential GPS	4	(3)
Code-Phase Differential GPS	7	(4)
User Errors Without Differential GPS	7	(3)
Reference Station Calculation of Corrections	10	(1)
Application of Reference Correction	11	(1)
Analysis of Differential GPS Errors	11	(16)
Receiver Noise, Interference, and Multipath Errors for Differential GPS	12	(4)
Satellite Clock Errors for Differential GPS	16	(1)
Satellite Ephemeris Errors for Eifferential GPS	17	(3)
Ionospheric Errors for Differential GPS	20	(3)
Troposhere Errors for Differential GPS	23	(1)
Local Area Differential GPS Error Summary	24	(3)
Carrier-Phase Differential GPS	27	(4)
Attitude Determination	27	(1)
Static and Kinematic Survey	28	(2)
Near Instantaneous Determination of Integers	30	(1)
Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services Data Format for Differential GPS Data	31	(3)
Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services Message Types 1, 2, and 9	32	(2)
Types 18, 19, 20, and 21 Messages	34	(1)
Datalinks	34	(7)
Groundwave Systems	34	(2)
VHF and UHF Networks	36	(3)
Mobile Satellite Communications	39	(2)
Differential GPS Field Results	41	(6)
Short-Range Differential Code-Phase Results	41	(1)
Long-Range Differential Code-Phase Results	42	(1)
Dynamic Differential Carrier-Phase Results	43	(4)
Conclusions	47	(1)
Appendix: Differential GPS Ephemeris Correction Errors Caused by Geographic Separation	47	(2)
References	49	(2)
Pseudolites	51	(30)
Bryant D. Elrod
A. J. Van Dierendock
Introduction	51	(1)
Pseudolite Signal Design Considerations	52	(5)
Previous Pseudolite Designs	52	(1)
New Pseudolite Signal Design	53	(4)
Integrated Differential GPS/Pseudolite Considerations	57	(8)
Pseudolite Siting	57	(1)
Pseudolite Time Synchronization	58	(4)
User Aircraft Antenna Location	62	(1)
Pseudolite Signal Data Message	63	(1)
GPS/Pseudolite Navigation Filter Considerations	64	(1)
Pseudolite Testing	65	(5)
Pseudolite Interference Testing	65	(2)
Pseudolite Data Link Testing	67	(1)
Navigation Performance Testing	68	(2)
Appendix A: Interference Caused by Cross Correlation Between C/A Codes	70	(4)
Appendix B: Interference Caused by Pseudolite Signal Level	74	(2)
Appendix C: Navigation Filter Modeling with Pseudolite Measurements	76	(2)
References	78	(3)
Wide Area Differential GPS	81	(36)
Changdon Kee
Introduction	81	(1)
Wide Area Differential GPS Architecture and Categories	82	(6)
Wide Area Differential GPS Architecture	82	(3)
Wide Area Differential GPS Categories	85	(2)
User Message Content and Format	87	(1)
Error Budget	88	(1)
Master Station Error Modeling	88	(7)
Ionospheric Time Delay Model for Algorithms A or B	89	(3)
Ephemeris and Satellite Clock Errors for Algorithms A, B, or C	92	(3)
Simulation of Algorithm B	95	(9)
Simulation Modules	95	(5)
Ionospheric Error Estimation Results	100	(1)
Navigation Performance	101	(3)
Summary of Results	104	(1)
Test Using Field Data to Evaluate Algorithm C	104	(8)
Locations of the Receiver Sites	105	(1)
Test Results	105	(6)
Latency and Age Concern	111	(1)
Conclusion	112	(2)
References	114	(3)
Wide Area Augmentation System	117	(26)
Per K. Enge
A.J. Van Dierendonck
Introduction	117	(3)
Signal Design	120	(4)
Link Budget and Noninterference with GPS	120	(3)
Data Capacity	123	(1)
Loop Threshold	124	(1)
Ranging Function	124	(2)
Nonprecision Approach and Error Estimates	126	(2)
Precision Approach and Vector Corrections	128	(3)
Vector Corrections	129	(1)
Precision Approach Integrity	130	(1)
Wide Area Augmentation System Message Format	131	(7)
Parity Algorithm	134	(1)
Message Type 2 Fast Corrections and User Differential Range Errors	135	(1)
Type 25: Long-Term Satellite Error Corrections Message	135	(1)
Type 26: Ionospheric Delay Error Corrections Message	136	(1)
Type 9: WAAS Satellite Navigation Message	137	(1)
Applied Range Accuracy Evaluation	137	(1)
Summary	138	(1)
Appendix: Geostationary Satellite Ephemeris Estimation and Code-Phase Control	139	(3)
References	142	(1)
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring	143	(26)
R. Grover Brown
History, Overview, and Definitions	143	(2)
Basic Snapshot Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Schemes and Equivalences	145	(7)
Range Comparison Method	146	(1)
Least-Squares-Residuals Method	147	(1)
Parity Method	148	(2)
Maximum Separation of Solutions	150	(1)
Constant-Detection-Rate/Variable-Protection-Level Method	151	(1)
Screening Out Poor Detection Geometries	152	(3)
Receiver-Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Availability for Airborne Supplemental Navigation	155	(1)
Introduction to Aided Receiver-Autonomous Integrity Monitoring	156	(2)
Failure Isolation and the Combined Problem of Failure Detection and Isolation	158	(6)
Introductiory Remarks	158	(1)
Parity Method and Failure Detection and Isolation	158	(3)
Calculation of the P Matrix	161	(2)
Failure Detection and Exclusion Algorithm	163	(1)
References	164	(5)
Part IV. Integrated Navigation Systems
Integration of GPS and Loran-C	169	(18)
Per K. Enge
F. van Graas
Introduction	169	(2)
Calibration of Loran Propagation Errors by GPS	171	(8)
Cross-Chain Synchronization of Loran-C Using GPS	171	(1)
Combining Pseudoranges from GPS and Loran-C for Air Navigation	171	(1)
Loran Overview	172	(2)
Calibration of Loran Propagation Errors by GPS	174	(2)
Cross-Rate Synchronization of Loran	176	(3)
Combining GPS Pseudoranges with Loran Time Differences	179	(6)
Navigation Equations	179	(3)
Probability of Outage Results	182	(2)
Summary	184	(1)
References	185	(2)
GPS and Inertial Integration	187	(34)
R. L. Greenspan
Benefits of GPS/Inertial Integration	187	(4)
Operation During Outages	189	(1)
Providing All Required Navigation Outputs	190	(1)
Reduced Noise in GPS Navigation Solutions	190	(1)
Increased Tolerance to Dynamics and Interference	191	(1)
GPS Integration Architectures and Algorithms	191	(8)
Integration Architectures	191	(3)
Integration Algorithms	194	(3)
Embedded Systems	197	(2)
Integration Case Studies	199	(18)
GPS/Inertial Navigation Systems Navigation Performance in a Low-Dynamics Aircraft	199	(7)
Using GPS for In-flight Alignment	206	(7)
Integrated Navigation Solutions During a GPS Outage	213	(4)
Summary	217	(1)
References	218	(3)
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Availability for GPS Augmented with Barometric Altimeter Aiding and Clock Coasting	221	(22)
Young C. Lee
Introduction	221	(1)
Methods of Augmentations	222	(7)
Augmented Geometry for Barometric Altimeter Aiding	222	(1)
Barometric Altimeter Aiding with GPS-Calibrates Pressure Altitude Data	223	(4)
Barometric Altimeter Aiding with Local Pressure Input	227	(1)
Augmented Geometry for Clock Coasting	228	(1)
Simulataneous Use of Barometric Altimeter Aiding and Clock	229	(1)
Definitions of Function Availability	229	(1)
Navigation Function	229	(1)
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Detection Function	229	(1)
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Function	230	(1)
Results	230	(5)
Parameters of Interest	230	(1)
Discussion of Results	231	(4)
Summary and Conclusions	235	(4)
Appendix: Statistical Distribution of the Height Gradients	239	(2)
References	241	(2)
GPS and Global Navigation Satellite System (Glonass)	243	(32)
Peter Daly
Pratap N. Misra
Introduction to the Global Navigation Satellite System	243	(15)
History of Satellite Navigation Systems	243	(1)
Orbits	244	(3)
History of Launches	247	(1)
Signal Design	248	(4)
Message Content and Format	252	(1)
Satellite Ephemerides	253	(1)
Satellite Almanacs	254	(1)
GPS/Glonass Onboard Clocks	255	(3)
Performance of Glonass and GPS + Glonass	258	(13)
Introduction	258	(1)
Requirements of Civil Aviation	259	(1)
Integrated Use of GPS and Glonass	260	(1)
Performance of Glonass and GPS and Glonass	261	(10)
Summary	271	(1)
Acknowledgments	271	(1)
References	271	(4)
Part V. GPS Navigation Applications
Land Vehicle Navigation and Tracking	275	(28)
Robert L. French
Application Characteristics and Markets	275	(6)
Commercial Vehicle Tracking	275	(2)
Automobile Navigation and Route Guidance	277	(2)
Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems	279	(2)
Historical Background	281	(2)
Early Mechanical Systems	281	(1)
Early Electronic Systems	282	(1)
Enabling/Supporting Technologies	283	(11)
Dead Reckoning	284	(2)
Digital Road Maps	286	(2)
Map Matching	288	(3)
Integration with GPS	291	(1)
Mobile Data Communications	292	(2)
Examples of Integrated Systems	294	(5)
Etax Navigator™/Bosch Travelpilot™	294	(2)
Toyota Electro-Multivision	296	(1)
TravTek Driver Information System	297	(1)
NavTrax™ Fleet Management System	298	(1)
References	299	(4)
Marine Applications	303	(24)
Jim Sennott
In-Soo Ahn
Dave Pietraszewski
Marine Navigation Phases and Requirements	303	(1)
Marine DGPS Background	304	(1)
Global Positioning Systems-Assisted Steering, Risk Assessment, and Hazard Warning System	305	(3)
Vessel and Sensor Modeling	308	(4)
Vessel Dynamics Model	308	(2)
Standardized Sensor Model	310	(1)
Combined Ship and Sensor Model	311	(1)
Waypoint Steering Functions	312	(9)
Filter and Controller Design	313	(1)
Sensor/Ship Bandwidth Ratio and Straight-Course Steering	314	(1)
Comparative Footprint Channel Clearance Width Distributions	315	(6)
Hazard Warning and Risk Assessment Functions	321	(2)
Risk Assessment	321	(2)
Hazard Warning	323	(1)
Summary	323	(1)
References	324	(3)
Applications of the GPS to Air Traffic Control	327	(48)
Ronald Braff
J. David Powell
Joseph Dorfler
Introduction	327	(1)
Air Traffic Control System	327	(2)
General Considerations	329	(5)
Operational Requirements	331	(2)
Government Activities	333	(1)
Air Navigation Applications	334	(28)
En Route, Terminal, and Nonprecision Approach Operational Considerations and Augmentations	335	(9)
Precision Approach Operational Considerations and Augmentations	344	(10)
Other Navigation Operational Considerations	354	(7)
Area and Four-Dimensional Navigation	361	(1)
Surveillance	362	(8)
Current Surveillance Methods	362	(4)
Surveillance via GPS	366	(4)
Summary of Key Benefits	370	(1)
References	370	(5)
GPS Applications in General Aviation	375	(22)
Ralph Eschenbach
Market Demographics	375	(2)
Airplanes	375	(1)
Pilots	375	(2)
Airports	377	(1)
Existing Navigation and Landing Aids (Non-GPS)	377	(7)
Nondirectional Beacons (NDB)	377	(1)
Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Radio	378	(1)
Distance-Measuring Equipment	379	(1)
Long-Range Radio Navigation	379	(1)
Omega	380	(1)
Approaches	380	(4)
Requirements for GPS in General Aviation	384	(3)
Dynamics	385	(1)
Functionality	385	(1)
Accuracy	385	(1)
Availability, Reliability, and Integrity	386	(1)
Pilot Interface	387	(1)
Input	387	(1)
Output	388	(1)
GPS Hardware and Integration	388	(2)
Installation Considerations	388	(1)
Number of Channels	389	(1)
Cockpit Equipment	389	(1)
Hand-held	389	(1)
Panel Mounts	389	(1)
Dzus Mount	390	(1)
Differential GPS	390	(2)
Operational Characteristics	391	(1)
Ground Stations	391	(1)
Airborne Equipment Features	391	(1)
Integrated Systems	392	(1)
GPS Loran	392	(1)
GPS/Omega	392	(1)
Future Implementations	393	(1)
Attitude and Heading Reference System	393	(1)
Approach Certification	393	(1)
Collision Avoidance	393	(1)
Autonomous Flight	394	(1)
Summary	394	(1)
References	395	(2)
Aircraft Automatic Approach and Landing Using GPS	397	(30)
Bradford W. Parkinson
Michael L. O'Connor
Introduction	397	(2)
Autolanding Conventionally and with GPS	397	(1)
Simulations Results Presented	398	(1)
Landing Approach Procedures	399	(2)
Instrument and Microwave Landing Systems	399	(2)
GPS Approach	401	(1)
Aircraft Dynamics and Linear Model	401	(4)
State Vector	401	(1)
Control Vector	402	(1)
Disturbance Vector	402	(1)
Measurement Vector	403	(1)
Equations of Motion	403	(1)
Wind Model	403	(1)
Throttle Control Lag	404	(1)
Glide-Slope Deviation	404	(1)
Autopilot Controller	405	(2)
Linear Quadratic Gaussian and Integral Control Law Controllers	405	(1)
Regulator Synthesis	405	(2)
GPS Measurements	407	(2)
Results	409	(5)
Cases Simulated	409	(1)
Landing with GPS Alone	410	(1)
Landing with GPS Plus Altimeter	410	(1)
Landing with Differential GPS	411	(1)
Landing with Carrier-Phase	411	(2)
Linear Quadratic Gaussian vs Integral Control Law	413	(1)
Conclusions and Comments	414	(1)
Appendix A: Discrete Controllers	415	(6)
Appendix B: Discrete Time Optimal Estimator	421	(1)
Appendix C: Numerical Values for Continuous System	422	(3)
Bibliography	425	(1)
References	425	(2)
Precision Landing of Aircraft Using Integrity Beacons	427	(34)
Clark E. Cohen
Boris S. Pervan
H. Stewart Cobb
David G. Lawrence
J. David Powell
Bradford W. Parkinson
Overview of the Integrity Beacon Landing System	427	(2)
Centimeter-Level Positioning	428	(1)
History of the Integrity Beacon Landing System	429	(1)
Doppler Shift and Geometry Change	429	(1)
Required Navigation Performance	429	(3)
Accuracy	429	(1)
Integrity	430	(1)
Availability	431	(1)
Continuity	431	(1)
Integrity Beacon Architecture	432	(2)
Droppler Marker	432	(1)
Omni Marker	432	(2)
Mathematics of Cycle Resolution	434	(4)
Observability Analysis	434	(1)
Matrix Formulation	435	(3)
Experimental Flight Testing	438	(9)
Quantification of Centimeter-Level Accuracy	438	(1)
Piper Dakota Experimental Flight Trials	439	(3)
Federal Aviation Administration Beech King Air Autocoupled Approaches	442	(2)
Automatic Landings of a United Boeing 737	444	(3)
Flight Test Summary and Observations	447	(1)
Operations Using Integrity Beacons	447	(3)
Integrity Beacon Landing System Landing Sequence	448	(2)
Integrity Beacon Landing System Navigation Integrity	450	(8)
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring	450	(3)
System Failure Modes	453	(1)
Quantifying Integrity	454	(2)
Signal Interference	456	(2)
Conclusion	458	(1)
References	458	(3)
Spacecraft Attitude Control Using GPS Carrier Phase	461	(22)
E. Glenn Lightsey
Introduction	461	(1)
Design Case Study	462	(2)
Sensor Characteristics	464	(4)
Antenna Placement	466	(1)
Sensor Calibration	466	(1)
Multipath	467	(1)
Sensor Accuracy	467	(1)
Dynamic Filtering	468	(1)
Vehicle Dynamics	468	(6)
Gravity Gradient Moment	470	(1)
Aerodynamic Moment	471	(1)
System Natural Response	472	(2)
Control Design	474	(3)
Control Loop Description	474	(1)
Simulation Results	475	(2)
Conclusion	477	(2)
Acknowledgments	479	(1)
References	479	(4)
Part VI. Special Applications
GPS for Precise Time and Time Interval Measurement	483	(18)
William J. Klepczynski
Introduction	483	(1)
Universal Coordinated Time	484	(1)
Role of Time in the GPS	485	(2)
Translation of GPS Time to Universal Coordinated Time	487	(2)
GPS as a Clock in the One-Way Mode	489	(1)
Common-View Mode of GPS	490	(8)
Melting-Pot Method	498	(1)
Problem of Selective Availability	498	(1)
Future Developments	499	(1)
References	500	(1)
Surveying with the Global Positioning System	501	(18)
Clyde Goad
Measurement Modeling	502	(6)
Dilution of Precision	508	(1)
Ambiguity Search	509	(1)
Use of Pseudoranges and Phase	510	(6)
Review	511	(3)
Three-Measurement Combinations	514	(2)
Antispoofing?	516	(1)
A Look Ahead	516	(1)
References	517	(2)
Attitude Determination	519	(20)
Clark E. Cohen
Overview	519	(2)
Fundamental Conventions for Attitude Determination	521	(2)
Solution Processing	523	(1)
Cycle Ambiguity Resolution	524	(7)
Baseline Length Constraint	525	(1)
Integer Searches	525	(1)
Motion-Based Methods	525	(6)
Alternative Means for Cycle Ambiguity Resolution	531	(1)
Performance	531	(4)
Geometrical Dilution of Precision for Attitude	532	(1)
Multipath	532	(1)
Structural Distortion	533	(1)
Troposphere	533	(1)
Signal-to-Noise Ratio	534	(1)
Receiver-Specific Errors	534	(1)
Total Error	534	(1)
Applications	535	(2)
Aviation	535	(2)
Spacecraft	537	(1)
Marine	537	(1)
References	537	(2)
Geodesy	539	(20)
Kristine M. Larson
Introduction	539	(1)
Modeling of Observables	540	(2)
Reference Frames	542	(5)
Precision and Accuracy	547	(3)
Results	550	(4)
Crustal Deformation	550	(3)
Earth Orientation	553	(1)
Conclusions	554	(1)
Acknowledgments	554	(1)
References	554	(5)
Orbit Determination	559	(34)
Thomas P. Yunck
Introduction	559	(1)
Principles of Orbit Determination	560	(7)
Dynamic Orbit Determination	560	(2)
Batch Least Squares Solution	562	(1)
Kalman Filter Formulation	563	(2)
Dynamic Orbit Error	565	(1)
Kalman Filter with Process Noise	565	(2)
Orbit Estimation with GPS	567	(6)
Carrier-Pseudorange Bias Estimation	567	(2)
Kinematic Orbit Determination	569	(2)
Reduced Dynamic Orbit Determination	571	(1)
Orbit Improvement by Physical Model Adjustment	572	(1)
Direct Orbit Determination with GPS	573	(1)
Precise Orbit Determination with Global Positioning Systems	574	(12)
Global Differential Tracking	574	(2)
Fine Points of the Global Solution	576	(1)
Precise Orbit Determination	577	(3)
Single-Frequency Precise Orbit Determination	580	(4)
Extension to Higher Altitude Satellites	584	(1)
Highly Elliptical Orbiters	585	(1)
Dealing with Selective Availability and Antispoofing	586	(2)
Antispoofing	586	(1)
Selective Availability	586	(2)
Summary	588	(1)
Acknowledgments	589	(1)
References	589	(4)
Test Range Instrumentation	593	(32)
Darwin G. Abby
Background	593	(2)
Requirements	595	(3)
Test Requirements	595	(1)
Training Requirements	596	(2)
Range Instrumentation Components	598	(6)
Global Positioning Systems Reference Station	598	(1)
Data Links	599	(1)
Test Vehicle Instrumentation	599	(1)
Translator Systems	599	(2)
Digital Translators	601	(3)
Differential Global Positioning Systems Implementations	604	(1)
Existing Systems	604	(15)
Department of Defense Systems	604	(10)
Commercial Systems	614	(5)
Data links	619	(1)
Accuracy Performance	619	(2)
Position Accuracy	619	(1)
Velocity Accuracy	620	(1)
Future Developments	621	(1)
National Range	621	(1)
Kinematic Techniques	622	(1)
References	622	(3)
Author Index	625	(2)
Subject Index	627