Grammaticalization

by Paul J. Hopper , Elizabeth Closs Traugott

• ISBN13: 9780521804219
• ISBN10: 0521804213
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2003-08-25
• Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Summary

This is a general introduction to grammaticalization, the change whereby lexical terms and constructions come in certain linguistic contexts to serve grammatical functions, and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop new grammatical functions. The authors synthesize work from several areas of linguistics, including historical linguistics, discourse analysis, and pragmatics. Data are drawn from many languages including Ewe, Finnish, French, Hindi, Hittite, Japanese, Malay, and especially English. This second edition has been thoroughly revised with substantial updates on theoretical and methodological issues that have arisen in the decade since the first edition, and includes a significantly expanded bibliography. Particular attention is paid to recent debates over directionality in change and the role of grammaticalization in creolization. Grammaticalization will be a valuable and stimulating textbook for all linguists interested in the development of grammatical forms and will also be of interest to readers in anthropology and psychology.

Table of Contents

List of figures	xiii
List of tables	xiv
Preface and acknowledgments	xv
List of abbreviations	xviii
1 Some preliminaries	1	(18)
1.1 Introduction	1	(3)
1.2 What is a grammaticalized form?	4	(5)
1.2.1 A preliminary classification of grammatical forms	4	(2)
1.2.2 Clines	6	(1)
1.2.3 Periphrasis versus affixation	7	(2)
1.3 Some further examples of grammaticalization	9	(7)
1.3.1 Lets	10	(3)
1.3.2 A West African complementizer	13	(2)
1.3.3 Agreement markers	15	(1)
1.4 Grammaticalization and language structure	16	(1)
1.5 Grammaticalization and the directionality of language change	16	(1)
1.6 Conclusion	17	(2)
2 The history of grammaticalization	19	(20)
2.1 Introduction	19	(1)
2.2 Earlier research on grammaticalization	19	(6)
2.3 Research on grammaticalization from the 1960's to the 1990's	25	(5)
2.4 Recent trends in research on grammaticalization	30	(9)
3 Mechanisms: reanalysis and analogy	39	(32)
3.1 Introduction	39	(1)
3.2 Some background assumptions about change	40	(10)
3.2.1 Induction, deduction, abduction	41	(2)
3.2.2 Who is the language learner?	43	(2)
3.2.3 The question of genetic endowment	45	(1)
3.2.4 Innovation versus spread	46	(4)
3.3 Reanalysis	50	(8)
3.3.1 The French inflectional future	52	(3)
3.3.2 The English modal auxiliaries	55	(3)
3.4 The independence of reanalysis and grammaticalization	58	(5)
3.4.1 Word-order change	59	(4)
3.5 Analogy/rule generalization	63	(5)
3.6 The differential effects of reanalysis and analogy	68	(1)
3.7 Conclusion	69	(2)
4 Pragmatic factors	71	(28)
4.1 Introduction	71	(3)
4.2 Inferencing and meaning change	74	(7)
4.2.1 Semantics and pragmatics	76	(1)
4.2.2 Relationships between senses of a form: homonymy and polysemy	77	(1)
4.2.3 Conversational and conventional inferencing	78	(3)
4.3 The role of pragmatic inferencing in grammaticalization	81	(11)
4.3.1 Metaphorical processes	84	(3)
4.3.2 Metonymic processes	87	(5)
4.4 Metaphor and metonymy as problem solving	92	(2)
4.5 Pragmatic enrichment versus "bleaching"	94	(4)
4.6 Conclusion	98	(1)
5 The hypothesis of unidirectionality	99	(41)
5.1 Introduction	99	(1)
5.2 Generalization	100	(6)
5.2.1 Generalization of meaning	101	(3)
5.2.2 Generalization of grammatical function	104	(2)
5.3 Decategorialization	106	(9)
5.3.1 A noun-to-affix cline	110	(1)
5.3.2 A verb-to-affix cline	111	(3)
5.3.3 Multiple paths	114	(1)
5.4 Some processes participating in unidirectionality	115	(9)
5.4.1 Specialization	116	(2)
5.4.2 Divergence	118	(4)
5.4.3 Renewal	122	(2)
5.5 A synchronic result of unidirectionality: layering	124	(2)
5.6 Frequency	126	(4)
5.6.1 Frequency effects	127	(1)
5.6.2 Synchronic studies of frequency	128	(1)
5.6.3 Diachronic studies of frequency	129	(1)
5.7 Counterexamples to unidirectionality	130	(8)
5.8 The uses of unidirectionality in reconstruction	138	(1)
5.9 Conclusion	139	(1)
6 Clause-internal morphological changes	140	(35)
6.1 Introduction	140	(1)
6.2 Morphologization	140	(19)
6.2.1 Some characteristics of clitics	142	(1)
6.2.2 Positions of clitics	143	(8)
6.2.3 Semantic "relevance" as a factor in fusion and morpheme order	151	(3)
6.2.4 Phonological concomitants of morphologization	154	(5)
6.3 The development of paradigms	159	(6)
6.4 Argument-structure marking: functional-semantic hierarchies and morphological generalization	165	(7)
6.4.1 Object marking in Persian	165	(3)
6.4.2 Ergative case marking: a statistical perspective	168	(4)
6.5 Loss	172	(2)
6.6 Conclusion	174	(1)
7 Grammaticalization across clauses	175	(37)
7.1 Introduction	175	(1)
7.2 A cline of clause-combining constructions	176	(8)
7.2.1 Parataxis	179	(2)
7.2.2 Hypotaxis	181	(2)
7.2.3 Subordination	183	(1)
7.3 The grammaticalization of clause linkers	184	(6)
7.4 Examples of the development of complex sentence constructions	190	(14)
7.4.1 That-complementation in English	190	(4)
7.4.2 Quotative say-constructions in Akkadian	194	(2)
7.4.3 Relative clauses in English and Hittite	196	(8)
7.5 From complex to simple clauses	204	(5)
7.5.1 From clause chaining to verb inflection in Lhasa	204	(2)
7.5.2 Two conjoined clauses reanalyzed as a single clause	206	(1)
7.5.3 From main clause construction to sentential adverb in contemporary English	207	(2)
7.6 Some counterexamples to unidirectionality in clause combining	209	(2)
7.7 Conclusion	211	(1)
8 Grammaticalization in situations of extreme language contact	212	(19)
8.1 Introduction	212	(1)
8.2 Basic characteristics of pidgins and creoles	213	(6)
8.2.1 Some characteristics of pidgins	214	(2)
8.2.2 Some characteristics of creoles	216	(3)
8.3 Implications of pidgins and creoles for language change	219	(5)
8.3.1 Child versus adult language acquisition	219	(3)
8.3.2 Simplification and elaboration	222	(2)
8.4 Specific implications of pidgins and creoles for grammaticalization	224	(7)
9 Summary and suggestions for further work	231	(3)
Notes	234	(3)
References	237	(28)
Index of names	265	(5)
Index of languages	270	(2)
General index	272