This is a general introduction to grammaticalization, the change whereby lexical terms and constructions come in certain linguistic contexts to serve grammatical functions, and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop new grammatical functions. The authors synthesize work from several areas of linguistics, including historical linguistics, discourse analysis, and pragmatics. Data are drawn from many languages including Ewe, Finnish, French, Hindi, Hittite, Japanese, Malay, and especially English. This second edition has been thoroughly revised with substantial updates on theoretical and methodological issues that have arisen in the decade since the first edition, and includes a significantly expanded bibliography. Particular attention is paid to recent debates over directionality in change and the role of grammaticalization in creolization. Grammaticalization will be a valuable and stimulating textbook for all linguists interested in the development of grammatical forms and will also be of interest to readers in anthropology and psychology.

List of figures

xiii

List of tables

xiv

Preface and acknowledgments

xv

List of abbreviations

xviii

1 Some preliminaries

1

(18)

1.1 Introduction

1

(3)

1.2 What is a grammaticalized form?

4

(5)

1.2.1 A preliminary classification of grammatical forms

4

(2)

1.2.2 Clines

6

(1)

1.2.3 Periphrasis versus affixation

7

(2)

1.3 Some further examples of grammaticalization

9

(7)

1.3.1 Lets

10

(3)

1.3.2 A West African complementizer

13

(2)

1.3.3 Agreement markers

15

(1)

1.4 Grammaticalization and language structure

16

(1)

1.5 Grammaticalization and the directionality of language change

16

(1)

1.6 Conclusion

17

(2)

2 The history of grammaticalization

19

(20)

2.1 Introduction

19

(1)

2.2 Earlier research on grammaticalization

19

(6)

2.3 Research on grammaticalization from the 1960's to the 1990's

25

(5)

2.4 Recent trends in research on grammaticalization

30

(9)

3 Mechanisms: reanalysis and analogy

39

(32)

3.1 Introduction

39

(1)

3.2 Some background assumptions about change

40

(10)

3.2.1 Induction, deduction, abduction

41

(2)

3.2.2 Who is the language learner?

43

(2)

3.2.3 The question of genetic endowment

45

(1)

3.2.4 Innovation versus spread

46

(4)

3.3 Reanalysis

50

(8)

3.3.1 The French inflectional future

52

(3)

3.3.2 The English modal auxiliaries

55

(3)

3.4 The independence of reanalysis and grammaticalization

58

(5)

3.4.1 Word-order change

59

(4)

3.5 Analogy/rule generalization

63

(5)

3.6 The differential effects of reanalysis and analogy

68

(1)

3.7 Conclusion

69

(2)

4 Pragmatic factors

71

(28)

4.1 Introduction

71

(3)

4.2 Inferencing and meaning change

74

(7)

4.2.1 Semantics and pragmatics

76

(1)

4.2.2 Relationships between senses of a form: homonymy and polysemy

77

(1)

4.2.3 Conversational and conventional inferencing

78

(3)

4.3 The role of pragmatic inferencing in grammaticalization

81

(11)

4.3.1 Metaphorical processes

84

(3)

4.3.2 Metonymic processes

87

(5)

4.4 Metaphor and metonymy as problem solving

92

(2)

4.5 Pragmatic enrichment versus "bleaching"

94

(4)

4.6 Conclusion

98

(1)

5 The hypothesis of unidirectionality

99

(41)

5.1 Introduction

99

(1)

5.2 Generalization

100

(6)

5.2.1 Generalization of meaning

101

(3)

5.2.2 Generalization of grammatical function

104

(2)

5.3 Decategorialization

106

(9)

5.3.1 A noun-to-affix cline

110

(1)

5.3.2 A verb-to-affix cline

111

(3)

5.3.3 Multiple paths

114

(1)

5.4 Some processes participating in unidirectionality

115

(9)

5.4.1 Specialization

116

(2)

5.4.2 Divergence

118

(4)

5.4.3 Renewal

122

(2)

5.5 A synchronic result of unidirectionality: layering

124

(2)

5.6 Frequency

126

(4)

5.6.1 Frequency effects

127

(1)

5.6.2 Synchronic studies of frequency

128

(1)

5.6.3 Diachronic studies of frequency

129

(1)

5.7 Counterexamples to unidirectionality

130

(8)

5.8 The uses of unidirectionality in reconstruction

138

(1)

5.9 Conclusion

139

(1)

6 Clause-internal morphological changes

140

(35)

6.1 Introduction

140

(1)

6.2 Morphologization

140

(19)

6.2.1 Some characteristics of clitics

142

(1)

6.2.2 Positions of clitics

143

(8)

6.2.3 Semantic "relevance" as a factor in fusion and morpheme order

151

(3)

6.2.4 Phonological concomitants of morphologization

154

(5)

6.3 The development of paradigms

159

(6)

6.4 Argument-structure marking: functional-semantic hierarchies and morphological generalization

165

(7)

6.4.1 Object marking in Persian

165

(3)

6.4.2 Ergative case marking: a statistical perspective

168

(4)

6.5 Loss

172

(2)

6.6 Conclusion

174

(1)

7 Grammaticalization across clauses

175

(37)

7.1 Introduction

175

(1)

7.2 A cline of clause-combining constructions

176

(8)

7.2.1 Parataxis

179

(2)

7.2.2 Hypotaxis

181

(2)

7.2.3 Subordination

183

(1)

7.3 The grammaticalization of clause linkers

184

(6)

7.4 Examples of the development of complex sentence constructions

190

(14)

7.4.1 That-complementation in English

190

(4)

7.4.2 Quotative say-constructions in Akkadian

194

(2)

7.4.3 Relative clauses in English and Hittite

196

(8)

7.5 From complex to simple clauses

204

(5)

7.5.1 From clause chaining to verb inflection in Lhasa

204

(2)

7.5.2 Two conjoined clauses reanalyzed as a single clause

206

(1)

7.5.3 From main clause construction to sentential adverb in contemporary English

207

(2)

7.6 Some counterexamples to unidirectionality in clause combining

209

(2)

7.7 Conclusion

211

(1)

8 Grammaticalization in situations of extreme language contact

212

(19)

8.1 Introduction

212

(1)

8.2 Basic characteristics of pidgins and creoles

213

(6)

8.2.1 Some characteristics of pidgins

214

(2)

8.2.2 Some characteristics of creoles

216

(3)

8.3 Implications of pidgins and creoles for language change

219

(5)

8.3.1 Child versus adult language acquisition

219

(3)

8.3.2 Simplification and elaboration

222

(2)

8.4 Specific implications of pidgins and creoles for grammaticalization

224

(7)

9 Summary and suggestions for further work

231

(3)

Notes

234

(3)

References

237

(28)

Index of names

265

(5)

Index of languages

270

(2)

General index

272

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