Handbook of Advanced Plasma Processing Techniques

by Shul, R. J.; Pearton, S. J.

• ISBN13: 9783540667728
• ISBN10: 3540667725
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-10-01
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

This volume covers the topic of advanced plasma processing techniques, from the fundamental physics of plasmas to diagnostics, modeling and applications such as etching and deposition for microelectronics. The use of plasmas for patterning on a submicron scale has enabled successive generations of continually smaller transistors, lasers, micromachines, sensors and magnetic read/write heads that have formed the basis of our information age. This volume is the first to give coverage to this broad area of topics in a detailed fashion, especially in the rapidly expanding fields of micro-mechanical machines, photomask fabrication, magnetic data storage and reactor modeling. It provides the reader with a broad array of topics, authored by the leading experts in the field.

Table of Contents

Some Fundamental Aspects of Plasma-Assisted Etching	1	(32)
J. W. Coburn
Introduction	1	(3)
The Evolution of Plasma Etching Equipment	4	(8)
The ``Barrel'' Systems	4	(1)
Planar and Cylindrical Diode Systems	5	(3)
Planar Triode Systems	8	(1)
Dual Frequency Planar Triode Systems	9	(1)
Inductively Coupled Plasmas, Wave Generated Plasmas, etc	9	(3)
The Role of Ions in Reactive Ion Etching	12	(10)
Ion-Assisted Gas-Surface Chemistry and the Resulting Etching Anisotropy	12	(3)
Mechanistic Aspects of Ion-Assisted Gas-Surface Chemistry	15	(3)
Other Factors That Influence Etching Anisotropy	18	(4)
The Influence of the Reactor Walls and Other Surfaces	22	(5)
The Etching Process	22	(2)
Polymer Deposition	24	(1)
Surface-Catalyzed Atom-Atom Recombination	25	(2)
Ion Beam-Based Methods	27	(4)
Summary	31	(2)
References	31	(2)
Plasma Fundamentals for Materials Processing	33	(36)
J. E. Stevens
Introduction	33	(3)
Single Particle Motion	36	(2)
Collision Processes	38	(5)
Velocity Distributions	43	(2)
Sheaths	45	(6)
Plasma Transport	51	(4)
Dielectric Properties	55	(2)
Plasma Sources for Thin Films Processing	57	(12)
Capacitive Sources	58	(1)
High Density Sources	59	(1)
Inductive Sources	60	(1)
ECR Sources	61	(1)
Helicon Sources	62	(1)
Wave Sources	63	(1)
Downstream Sources	63	(2)
References	65	(4)
Plasma Modeling	69	(54)
E. Meeks
P. Ho
Introduction	69	(1)
Historical Perspective	70	(1)
Plasma Modeling Issues	71	(13)
Well Mixed Reactor Models and Applications (0-D)	73	(3)
One-Dimensional Models and Applications	76	(3)
Two-Dimensional Models and Applications	79	(4)
Three-Dimensional Models and Applications	83	(1)
2-D and 3-D Profile Evolution Models and Applications	84	(1)
Chemical Reaction Mechanisms	84	(19)
Gas-Phase Kinetic and Transport Processes	86	(6)
Surface Chemistry	92	(4)
Reaction Mechanism Validation, Tuning, and Reduction	96	(2)
Sample Reaction Mechanism	98	(5)
Examples of Application of Plasma Modeling to Design or Optimization	103	(11)
Optimization of Plasma Cleaning Process to Reduce Reactor Emissions	103	(4)
Optimization of Chemical Downstream Etch Process Conditions	107	(4)
Reactor Design: Scaling-Up from 200 to 300 mm Wafers	111	(3)
Mapping Pressure Gradients in Reactor Pump Port and Inlet Regions	114	(1)
Future Directions of Plasma Modeling	114	(9)
References	117	(6)
Plasma Reactor Modeling	123	(22)
M. Meyyappan
Introduction	123	(1)
Reactor Scale Model	124	(13)
A Review of Various Approaches	124	(1)
Global Model	125	(2)
Continuum Reactor Model	127	(7)
Hybrid Model	134	(3)
Feature Level Modeling	137	(4)
Database Needs	141	(1)
Concluding Remarks	141	(4)
References	143	(2)
Overview of Plasma Diagnostic Techniques	145	(60)
G.A. Hebner
P. A. Miller
J. R. Woodworth
Introduction	145	(1)
Plasma Electrical Characterization	146	(31)
Electrical Diagnostics	146	(21)
Microwave Diagnostic Techniques	167	(4)
Ion-Energy Analyzers	171	(6)
Optical Diagnostic Techniques	177	(28)
Optical Emission	177	(8)
Optical Absorption Techniques	185	(5)
Laser-Induced Fluorescence	190	(7)
Negative Ion Photodetachment	197	(1)
Optogalvanic Spectroscopy	198	(1)
Thomson Scattering	199	(1)
References	200	(5)
Mass Spectrometric Characterization of Plasma Etching Processes	205	(52)
C.R. Eddy, Jr.
Introduction	205	(3)
Application to Fundamental Studies	208	(4)
Silicon/Fluorine	209	(1)
Silicon/Chlorine	210	(1)
Gallium Arsenide/Chlorine	211	(1)
Application in Etch Processing Reactors	212	(36)
General Description of Experiments	212	(1)
IV-IV Semiconductors	212	(7)
III-V Semiconductors	219	(13)
II-VI Semiconductors	232	(7)
Metals and Perovskites	239	(5)
Issues in Application and Interpretation	244	(4)
Summary and Future Directions	248	(9)
References	254	(3)
Fundamentals of Plasma Process-Induced Charging and Damage	257	(52)
K. P. Giapis
Introduction	257	(3)
The Origin of Pattern-Dependent Charging	260	(8)
Differences in Ion and Electron Angular Distributions	260	(3)
Charging as a Result of Current Imbalance	263	(1)
Electron Shading Effects	264	(4)
The Notching Effect	268	(14)
Observations and Mechanisms	268	(2)
Phenomena that Influence Notching	270	(5)
Results from Self-Consistent Charging Simulations	275	(4)
Validation	279	(3)
Other Profile Effects Influenced by Charging	282	(8)
Reactive Ion Etching Lag	282	(3)
Microtrenching	285	(5)
Gate Oxide Degradation	290	(10)
The Driving Force for Current Injection	290	(2)
Tunneling Current Transients	292	(3)
The Influence of Electron and Ion Temperature	295	(5)
Charging Reduction Methodology	300	(3)
Concluding Remarks	303	(6)
Historical Perspective	303	(1)
Will Charging Problems Persist?	304	(1)
References	305	(4)
Surface Damage Induced by Dry Etching	309	(52)
S.W. Pang
Introduction	309	(1)
Surface Damage in Si	309	(16)
Changes in Electrical Characteristics due to Dry Etching	310	(5)
Defects Evaluated by Surface Analysis	315	(4)
Modeling of Etch-Induced Damage	319	(6)
Surface Damage in III-V Semiconductors	325	(19)
Damage Dependence on Etch Conditions	326	(9)
Effects of Etch Time and Materials on Defect Generation	335	(3)
Changes in Electrical and Optical Characteristics	338	(6)
Damage Removal	344	(13)
Wet Etching, Dry Etching, Thermal Annealing, and Two-Step Etching	344	(9)
Passivation by Low-Energy Reactive Species	353	(4)
Summary	357	(4)
References	357	(4)
Photomask Etching	361	(58)
D. J. Resnick
Introduction	361	(3)
Optical Lithography	364	(19)
Photomask Basics	364	(1)
Chrome Photomasks	364	(8)
MoSi Photomasks	372	(7)
Phase Shift Mask Technology	379	(4)
X-Ray Lithography	383	(19)
X-Ray Lithography Basics	383	(2)
Gold Absorber-Based Masks	385	(3)
Refractory Masks	388	(1)
Amorphous Refractory-Based Masks	389	(6)
Thermal Characteristics of a Mask Etch Process	395	(5)
Hard Mask Materials	400	(2)
SCALPEL	402	(5)
SCALPEL Basics	402	(2)
SCALPEL Mask Blank Processing	404	(1)
SCALPEL Mask Pattern Transfer	405	(2)
EUVL	407	(4)
EUVL Basics	407	(1)
EUVL Masks	408	(1)
EUV Mask Pattern Transfer	409	(2)
Ion Projection Lithography	411	(3)
Ion Projection Lithography Basics	411	(1)
IPL Masks	411	(2)
IPL Mask Pattern Transfer	413	(1)
IPL Mask Distortion Issues	414	(1)
Conclusion	415	(4)
References	416	(3)
Bulk Si Micromachining for Integrated Microsystems and MEMS Processing	419	(40)
R.J. Shul
J.G. Fleming
Introduction	419	(2)
Etch Technologies	421	(5)
Wet Chemical Etching	421	(1)
Plasma Etching	421	(2)
Reactive Ion Etching	423	(1)
High-Density Plasma Etching	424	(1)
Deep Reactive Ion Etching	425	(1)
ECR Results	426	(13)
ECR Experimental	427	(1)
ECR Process Parameters	427	(6)
ECR Process Applications	433	(6)
DRIE Results	439	(9)
DRIE versus ICP Etch Comparison	439	(2)
Etch Rates and Selectivity to Masking Materials	441	(4)
Aspect Ratio Dependent Etching (ARDE) in DRIE	445	(1)
Etch Selectivities	446	(2)
DRIE Applications	448	(9)
Chemical Sensing Devices	448	(5)
Advanced Packaging	453	(2)
SOI DRIE Etching	455	(2)
Conclusions	457	(2)
References	457	(2)
Plasma Processing of III-V Materials	459	(48)
C. Youtsey
I. Adesida
Introduction	459	(1)
Dry Etching Techniques	459	(7)
Ion Beam Etching	459	(3)
Reactive Ion Etching	462	(2)
High-Density Plasma Reactive Ion Etching	464	(2)
Masking Materials and Methods	466	(3)
Dry Etching Chemistries	469	(5)
Dry Etching of GaAs and Related Materials	474	(3)
Dry Etching of InP and Related Materials	477	(6)
Dry Etching of GaN and Related Materials	483	(7)
Selective Dry Etching of III-V Materials	490	(4)
GaAs on AlGaAs	490	(2)
InGaAs on InAlAs	492	(1)
GaN on AlGaN	493	(1)
Conclusion	494	(13)
References	496	(11)
Ion Beam Etching of Compound Semiconductors	507	(42)
G.A. Vawter
Introduction	507	(1)
Definitions	507	(3)
Ion Beam Etching	507	(1)
Reactive Ion Beam Etching	508	(1)
Chemically Assisted Ion Beam Etching	508	(2)
Sputter Yield	510	(1)
Ion Sources	510	(2)
Historic Development	512	(1)
Grid Design, Beam Uniformity, and Divergence	513	(2)
Brief Overview of Etching Kinetics and Chemistry	515	(3)
Surface Quality and Etch Masking	518	(4)
RIBE Etch Technology	522	(8)
RIBE of GaAs and AlGaAs	522	(4)
RIBE of InP	526	(2)
RIBE of InGaAsP and InP	528	(1)
RIBE of AlGaInP, GaInP and AlGaInAs	528	(1)
RIBE of (Al,Ga)Sb, (In, Ga)Sb and InAsSb	529	(1)
RIBE of GaP and GaN	530	(1)
RIBE of ZnSe and ZnS	530	(1)
CAIBE Etch Technology	530	(5)
CAIBE of GaAs	531	(1)
CAIBE of AlGaAs	532	(1)
CAIBE of InP and InGaAsP	533	(1)
CAIBE of AlGaInP and AlGaInAs	534	(1)
CAIBE of (Al,Ga)Sb and InSb	535	(1)
CAIBE of (Al,Ga)N	535	(1)
Endpoint Detection	535	(3)
Damage	538	(11)
References	539	(10)
Dry Etching of InP Vias	549	(26)
S. Thomas III
J.J. Brown
Introduction	549	(4)
Past Difficulties in Obtaining High Rate Etching for InP	553	(1)
High Bias CH4-based Etching of InP	553	(1)
Elevated Temperature Cl-based Etching of InP	554	(1)
High Density Plasma Sources for High InP Etch Rate	554	(3)
Reduced Bias CH4-Based ECR Etching of InP	555	(1)
Addition of Cl to CH4-Based ECR Etching of InP	556	(1)
Low Temperature Cl-Based Etching	556	(1)
Measurement of Plasma Heating for InP Etching	557	(7)
Wafer Heating During High-Density Plasma Etching	557	(3)
Impact of Plasma Heating for InP Etching	560	(3)
Effects of Chamber Pressure and Wafer Temperature on Etch Rate	563	(1)
Application to Via Hole Etching	564	(6)
Etch Mask and Etch Characteristics	565	(2)
Etching Slot Vias Using a Photoresist Mask	567	(2)
OES for Endpoint	569	(1)
Summary	570	(5)
References	571	(4)
Device Damage During Low Temperature High-Density Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition	575	(32)
J. Lee
F. Ren
Introduction	575	(1)
Experimental	576	(3)
Results and Discussion	579	(22)
Summary and Conclusions	601	(6)
References	602	(5)
Dry Etching of Magnetic Materials	607	(42)
K.B. Jung
H. Cho
S.J. Pearton
Introduction	607	(1)
Ion Milling	608	(1)
Cl2-Based ICP Etching of NiFe and Related Materials	609	(11)
Copper Dry Etching in Cl2/Ar	620	(8)
CO/NH3 Etching of Magnetic Materials	628	(7)
ECR and ICP Etching of NiMnSb	635	(5)
Dry Etching of LaCaMnOx and SmCo	640	(4)
Summary and Conclusions	644	(5)
References	644	(5)
Subject Index	649