Handbook of Detergents, Part D: Formulation

by Showell; Michael

• ISBN13: 9780824703509
• ISBN10: 0824703502
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-07-27
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Beyond use in the consumer markets, detergents affect applications ranging from automotive lubricants to remediation techniques for oil spills and other environmental contaminants, paper and textile processing, and the formulation of paints, inks, and colorants. Faced with many challenges and choices, formulators must choose the composition of detergents carefully. The fourth and latest installment of the Handbook of Detergents, Part D: Formulation enables formulators to meet the demands of the increasing complexity of formulations, economic and sustainability constraints, and reducing the impact of detergents on the environment to which they will eventually be released.

Table of Contents

Introduction to Detergents	1	(26)
Michael S. Showell
Introduction	2	(2)
Common Detergent Ingredients	4	(9)
Surfactants	4	(1)
Dispersing Polymers	4	(4)
Builders and Chelants	8	(1)
Bleaching Systems	9	(1)
Solvents	10	(1)
Performance Enhancing Minor Ingredients	11	(2)
Representative Detergent Formulations	13	(2)
Laundry Detergent Formulations	13	(1)
Dishwash Detergent Formulations	13	(1)
Hard Surface Cleaning Formulations	13	(1)
Personal Care Detergent Formulations	13	(1)
Oral Care Detergent Formulations	13	(1)
Agricultural Detergent Formulations	13	(1)
Automobile Detergent Formulations	13	(1)
Detergent Formulations for Cleaning Food Processing Equipment	14	(1)
Detergent Formulations for Metal Component Cleaning	15	(1)
Detergency Theory and Mechanisms	15	(12)
Removal Mechanisms	19	(4)
Suspension Mechanisms	23	(1)
Acknowledgments	24	(1)
References	25	(2)
Statistical Mixture Design for Optimization of Detergent Formulations	27	(24)
Samir S. Ashrawi
George A. Smith
Introduction	27	(2)
Mixture Design Experiments	29	(2)
Examples of Mixture Design Experiments	31	(18)
Heavy Duty Liquid Detergent Optimization	32	(7)
Light Duty Liquid Detergent Optimization	39	(6)
Detergent Concentrate Robustness Study	45	(4)
Conclusions	49	(2)
References	49	(2)
Laundry Detergent Formulations	51	(54)
Randall A. Watson
Introduction	52	(2)
Scope of Chapter	52	(1)
Why Different Forms?	52	(2)
Unifying Formulation Concepts	54	(2)
Typical Laundry Detergent Ingredients	56	(10)
Surfactants	56	(1)
Anionic Surfactants	56	(1)
Nonionic Surfactants	56	(2)
Cationic Surfactants	58	(1)
Others	58	(1)
Builders	58	(1)
Polymers	59	(2)
Enzymes	61	(1)
Bleach	62	(1)
Chelating Agents	63	(1)
Perfumes	63	(2)
``Minors''	65	(1)
Heavy Duty Granules	66	(5)
Phosphate vs. Nil-Phosphate	67	(2)
Low Density vs. High Density	69	(1)
Machine Wash vs. Handwash	70	(1)
Heavy Duty Liquids	71	(11)
Isotropic Liquids	71	(5)
Structured Liquids	76	(3)
Bleach-Containing Liquids	79	(2)
Dual-Bottle Liquids	81	(1)
Unit Dose Detergents	82	(8)
Tablets	82	(5)
Liqui-Tabs	87	(2)
Sheets	89	(1)
Laundry Bars	90	(3)
Specialty Detergents	93	(6)
Care Formulas	94	(2)
2-in-1 Detergents	96	(3)
Summary	99	(6)
Acknowledgments	100	(1)
References	100	(5)
Dishwashing Detergents for Household Applications	105	(48)
Jichun Shi
William M. Scheper
Mark R. Sivik
Glenn T. Jordan
Jean-Francois Bodet
Brian X. Song
Summary	106	(1)
Introduction	106	(3)
Market Penetration of Residential Automatic Dishwashers	107	(1)
Smaller Households	108	(1)
Busier Consumer Lifestyles	108	(1)
Hand Dishwashing Detergents	109	(13)
Chemistry of Hand Dishwashing	109	(1)
Hand Dishwashing Process	109	(1)
Methods of Hand Dish Washing	110	(1)
Mechanisms of Cleaning by Hand Dishwashing Detergents	111	(1)
Basic Building Blocks of Hand Dishwashing Detergents	112	(1)
Surfactants	112	(1)
Foam or Suds Stabilizers	113	(2)
Hydrotropes and Dissolution Aids	115	(1)
Recent Developments in Key Hand Dishwashing Technologies	115	(1)
Surfactants	115	(1)
Low-IFT Grease Cleaning Technologies	116	(2)
Suds Boosting Polymers	118	(2)
Product Dissolution Aids	120	(1)
Enzymes	121	(1)
Bleaches	121	(1)
New Product Forms	121	(1)
Dish Wipes	121	(1)
Hand Dishwashing Implement	122	(1)
Summary of Recent Patents for Hand Dishwashing Detergents	122	(1)
Automatic Dishwashing Detergents	122	(21)
Chemistry of Automatic Dishwashing	122	(1)
Automatic Dishwashing Process	122	(10)
New Product Forms for Automatic Dishwashing Detergents	132	(1)
Key Consumer Benefits of Automatic Dishwashing Detergents	133	(1)
Major Ingredients in Automatic Dishwashing Detergents	133	(2)
Bleach Catalyst Technologies for Automatic Dishwashing	135	(1)
Bleach Metal Catalyst Technology Design	135	(3)
Product Performance of the Cobalt (III) Bleach Catalyst	138	(1)
Bleach Technologies for Hydrophobic Stains	138	(1)
Low-Foaming Nonionic Surfactants	139	(2)
Glass Surface Care Technologies	141	(1)
Anticorrosion Glass Care	142	(1)
Antifilming Surface Care	142	(1)
Summary of Recent Patents for Automatic Dishwashing Detergents	143	(1)
Concluding Remarks	143	(10)
References	150	(3)
The Formulation of Liquid Household Cleaners	153	(26)
Stefano Scialla
Introduction	154	(5)
Background	154	(1)
Classification of Household Soils	154	(2)
Classification of Household Surfaces	156	(1)
Test Methods	157	(1)
Encrusted grease and soap scum removal	157	(1)
Limescale removal	158	(1)
Shine performance	158	(1)
Foaming profile	158	(1)
Surface Cleaner Formulations	159	(15)
All-Purpose Cleaners	159	(1)
Suds and Other Aesthetic Parameters	159	(1)
Performance Profile	159	(1)
Technology	160	(4)
Bathroom Cleaners	164	(1)
Suds and aesthetics	164	(1)
Technology	165	(2)
Toilet Bowl Cleaners	167	(2)
Bleach Cleaners	169	(1)
Cream Cleansers	170	(1)
Glass Cleaners	171	(1)
Carpet Cleaners	172	(1)
Spotters and High Traffic Cleaners	172	(1)
Shampoos	173	(1)
Spray Extraction Formulations	173	(1)
Future Trends	174	(5)
Acknowledgments	175	(1)
References	175	(4)
Liquid Bleach Formulations	179	(28)
Stefano Scialla
Oreste Todini
The Formulation of Liquid Bleaches	180	(2)
Introduction	180	(1)
Evaluation of the Performance of Liquid Bleaches	180	(1)
Washing Procedure	180	(1)
Stain Removal Test	180	(1)
Fabric Oxidation	181	(1)
The Formulation of Liquid Chlorine Bleaches	182	(9)
Introduction	182	(1)
Stability of Hypochlorite Liquid Bleach Formulations	183	(4)
Fabric Safety Profile of Hypochlorite Bleaches	187	(4)
The Formulation of Liquid Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaches	191	(11)
Introduction	191	(1)
Stability of Liquid Hydrogen Peroxide	192	(6)
Boosting the Performance of Liquid Hydrogen Peroxide	198	(1)
Activation by Peracid Precursors	198	(1)
Peracids in Equilibrium with Hydrogen Peroxide	199	(1)
Activation by Alkaline pH	200	(1)
Color and Fabric Safety	201	(1)
Future Trends	202	(5)
Acknowledgments	203	(1)
References	203	(4)
Personal Care Formulations	207	(54)
Achim Ansmann
Peter Busch
Hermann Hensen
Karlheinz Hill
Hans-Udo Krachter
Michael Muller
Introduction	208	(8)
Trends for Cosmetic Cleansing Formulations	208	(1)
Evolution of Cleaning	208	(2)
Future Cleansing Concepts	210	(1)
Psychological Trends	211	(3)
Testing Strategy To Evaluate the Dermatological Properties of Surfactants	214	(2)
Formulation Techniques	216	(17)
Emulsions	216	(2)
Physicochemical Stability	218	(2)
Liquid Crystals and Gel Phases	220	(1)
Nanoemulsions	221	(4)
Multiple Emulsions	225	(2)
Gel Emulsions (High Internal Phase Emulsions)	227	(1)
Microemulsions and PIER	227	(3)
Surfactant Concentrates	230	(1)
Encapsulated Systems	231	(2)
Formulations---Examples and Concepts	233	(8)
Shampoos Based on Alkyl Polyglycosides	234	(1)
Shower Gels	235	(1)
Peeling Preparations	235	(1)
Microemulsions as Bath Oils	236	(1)
Facial Cleansers	236	(1)
Hair Conditioners	236	(1)
Styling and Permanent Wave Products	237	(1)
Creams and Lotions for Sensitive Skin	238	(2)
Sun Protective Lotions	240	(1)
Active Face Creams	241	(1)
Performance Properties	241	(16)
Testing Methods for the Hair	242	(1)
Wet Combing	242	(1)
Dry Combing	242	(1)
Tensile Strength	243	(1)
Hair Thickness	244	(1)
Shadow-Image Analysis of Tresses of Hair	245	(1)
Atomic Force Microscopy	245	(1)
Oscillation Properties of Hair	246	(1)
Hair Gloss	247	(1)
Foam	247	(1)
Cleansing Effects	248	(1)
Testing Methods for the Skin	249	(1)
Skin Surface Properties	249	(2)
Spreading Behavior of Cosmetics	251	(2)
Mechanical Properties	253	(1)
Sensory Properties/Sensory Assessment	254	(1)
Skin Moisture	255	(1)
Skin Surface Lipids	256	(1)
Skin Surface pH	256	(1)
Trademarks	257	(4)
References	257	(4)
Special Purpose Cleaning Formulations: Auto Care and Industrial/Institutional Products	261	(18)
Felix Mueller
Jorg Peggau
Shoaib Arif
Introduction	262	(1)
Auto Care	262	(8)
Manual Car Wash	262	(1)
Automatic Prewash/Main Wash	262	(1)
Main Car Wash (Brush Wash or Touchless)	263	(2)
Rinse/Drying Aids	265	(1)
Exterior Car Care Agents/Polishes	266	(1)
Interior Car Care/Leather Care	267	(2)
Rim/Tire Care	269	(1)
Glass/Windshield Cleansing	269	(1)
Industrial and Institutional Products for Special Purposes	270	(6)
Gel Cleansing Products	270	(1)
Quick Dry Floor Cleansers	271	(1)
Nanostructured Floor Tile Cleansing	272	(1)
Odor Control Products	273	(1)
Water-Based Steel Cleaner	273	(2)
Glass Cleaning	275	(1)
Sugar-Based Surfactants for CIP	276	(1)
Cleaning with Natural Raw Materials	276	(1)
Conclusion	276	(3)
References	277	(2)
Surfactant Applications in Textile Processing	279	(26)
Jiping Wang
Yong Zhu
Introduction	280	(4)
Textile Fiber Consumption	280	(1)
Textile Processes	281	(1)
Uniqueness of Textile Chemicals	282	(1)
Surfactant's Role in Textile Processing	283	(1)
Surfactant's Market in Textile Chemicals	283	(1)
Surfactants in Textile Preparation	284	(5)
Naturally Occurring Impurities on Textile Fibers	284	(1)
Impurities on Raw Cotton	284	(1)
Impurities on Raw Wool	284	(1)
Impurities on Raw Silk	285	(1)
Process-Added Impurities on Textile Fibers	285	(1)
Sizing Agents	285	(1)
Yarn Lubricants	286	(1)
Desizing Agents	286	(1)
Scouring Agents	287	(1)
Bleaching Assistants	288	(1)
Surfactant Applications in Textile Dyeing	289	(8)
Leveling Agents	290	(1)
Cellulose Dyeing	290	(1)
Polyester Dyeing	291	(1)
Wool Dyeing	292	(1)
Acrylic Fiber Dyeing	292	(2)
Dispersing Agents	294	(1)
Wetting and Penetrating Agents	294	(1)
Foaming and Defoaming	295	(1)
Aftertreatment Applications	296	(1)
Surfactant Applications in Textile Printing	297	(1)
Surfactant Applications in Textile Finishing	298	(7)
Softeners	298	(2)
Antistatics	300	(1)
Other Finish Applications	301	(1)
Antimicrobial Finishing	301	(1)
Water/Oil Repelling and Soil-Release Finishing	301	(1)
Optical Finishing	302	(1)
References	302	(3)
Detergent Formulations in Separation Science	305	(20)
Edmondo Pramauro
Alessandra Bianco Prevot
Introduction	305	(20)
Micellar Solubilization	306	(1)
Experimental Determination of Binding Constants	307	(1)
Indirect Evaluation of KB	308	(1)
Micelle-Mediated Separation/Preconcentration Techniques	308	(1)
Micellar Extraction of Sparingly Soluble Compounds from Solid Matrices	308	(1)
Preconcentration/Extraction Based on Thermal Phase Separation (Cloud-Point Extraction)	309	(4)
Micellar Ultrafiltration	313	(3)
Micellar Liquid Chromatography	316	(2)
Micellar Electrokinetic Capillary Chromatography (MECC)	318	(2)
Acknowledgments	320	(1)
References	320	(5)
Surfactant Formulations in Enhanced Oil Recovery	325	(22)
Thanaa Abdel-Moghny
Scope	326	(1)
Primary Recovery	326	(1)
Secondary Recovery	326	(1)
Tertiary Oil Recovery	326	(1)
Introduction	327	(20)
Enhanced Oil Recovery	327	(1)
Chemical Flooding	327	(1)
Development of Chemical Flooding	327	(2)
Chemical Surfactant	329	(1)
Surfactants	329	(3)
Cation Exchange	332	(1)
Stability	332	(1)
Surfactant Flooding	332	(1)
Mechanism of Surfactant at Reservoir Rocks	333	(1)
Surfactant Mixture	333	(1)
Ideal Mixtures	334	(1)
Application of Ideal Mixing	334	(1)
Nonideal Mixtures	334	(1)
Polymer Flooding	335	(1)
Alkaline Water Flooding	336	(1)
Traditional Surfactant/Polymer Flooding	336	(1)
Surfactant-Polymer Interaction in Solution	337	(1)
Relation between the Interfacial Tension and Residual Oil Saturation	338	(1)
Phase Behavior in EOR	339	(1)
Application of Surfactants in Enhanced Oil Recovery	339	(1)
Interaction between Surfactant and Polymer at Reservoir Rock	340	(1)
Displacement of Oil by Spontaneous Imbibition of Aqueous Surfactant Solution	340	(1)
Adsorption of Different Surfactants on Kaolinite	341	(1)
Acidified Oil/Surfactant Enhanced Alkaline System	341	(1)
Dual Surfactants---System for Enhanced Oil Recovery at High Salinity	341	(1)
Ultralow IFT Using Neutralized Oxidized Hydrocarbon Surfactant	342	(1)
Mixed Micelles	342	(1)
Biosurfactants as New Surfactant	342	(1)
Acknowledgments	342	(1)
References	343	(4)
Surfactant-Based Systems for Environmental Remediation	347	(22)
David A. Sabatini
Robert C. Knox
Jeffrey H. Harwell
Ben Shiau
Summary	347	(1)
The Problem	348	(2)
The Approach	350	(1)
Surfactant Fundamentals	351	(18)
Key Economic/Technical Factors	353	(1)
Minimizing Surfactant Losses	354	(1)
Maximizing Contaminant Extraction	354	(1)
Surfactant Regeneration/Reuse	355	(1)
Mitigating Vertical Migration Concerns	356	(2)
Field Results	358	(1)
Hill Air Force Base (AFB)---Maximizing Contaminant Extraction	358	(3)
Tinker AFB---Surfactant Decontamination for Reinjection	361	(1)
Alameda Point NAS---Mitigating Vertical Migration (Supersolubilization)	362	(2)
Future Advances/Applications	364	(2)
Acknowledgments	366	(1)
References	366	(3)
Paints and Printing Inks	369	(18)
Krister Holmberg
Introduction	369	(2)
Paints	370	(1)
Printing Inks	371	(1)
Surfactants for Stabilization of the Binder Dispersion	371	(6)
Lattices	371	(3)
Postemulsified Binders	374	(3)
Surfactants for Pigment Dispersion	377	(6)
Dispersants for Waterborne Formulations	379	(4)
Dispersants for Solventborne Formulations	383	(1)
Wetting Agents	383	(1)
Speciality Surfactants for Paints	384	(1)
Surfactants for Fountain Solutions	384	(3)
References	385	(2)
Surfactant Formulations in Polymerization	387	(50)
Gianmarco Polotti
Role of Surfactant	388	(4)
Advantages and Disadvantages	388	(3)
Alternatives to Their Use	391	(1)
Emulsion Polymerization	392	(27)
Micellar Nucleation Mechanism	393	(3)
Homogeneous Nucleation Mechanism	396	(2)
Latex Stabilization	398	(2)
Choice of the Surfactant	400	(1)
Anionic Surfactants	401	(1)
Nonionic Surfactants	402	(3)
Anionic/Nonionic Surfactant Mixtures	405	(14)
Cationic Surfactants	419	(1)
Suspension Polymerization	419	(2)
Miniemulsion Polymerization	421	(5)
Inverse Emulsion Polymerization	426	(11)
References	433	(4)
Detergent Formulations in Lubricants	437	(36)
Tze-Chi Jao
Charles A. Passut
Introduction	438	(1)
Chemistries of Detergents and Dispersants	439	(1)
Types of Metallic Detergents	439	(6)
Sulfonates	439	(3)
Phenates	442	(1)
Salicylates	442	(1)
Phosphonates and Thiophosphonates	443	(1)
Other Detergents	444	(1)
Types of Ashless Dispersants	445	(6)
Succinimides	445	(1)
Esters	446	(1)
Oxazolines	447	(1)
Mannich Condensates	448	(1)
Graft Ethylene-Propylene Copolymers	449	(1)
Thiophosphonates	450	(1)
Other Dispersants	450	(1)
Solution Behavior of Detergents and Dispersants in Oils	451	(4)
Micellar Properties of Sulfonate Detergents in Hydrocarbon Solvents	451	(1)
Counter Ion Effect on Sulfonate Detergent Micellar Stability	452	(1)
Thermodynamic Energetics of Micellar Formation Process	452	(1)
Micellar Properties of Other Metallic Detergents in Hydrocarbon Solvents	453	(1)
Micellar Properties of Ashless Dispersants	453	(1)
Rigidity of Metallic Detergent Micelles	454	(1)
Effect of Overbasing on Micellar Structures	454	(1)
Overbasing Mechanism	455	(1)
Action Mechanisms of Metallic Detergents and Ashless Dispersants	455	(4)
Acid--Base Neutralization Mechanisms in Lubricating Oils	455	(1)
Rate of Alkalinity Depletion in Oils	456	(1)
Peptization Mechanisms to Keep Insoluble Particles in Suspension	457	(1)
Prevention of Varnish and Lacquer Deposition Formation	458	(1)
As Friction and Wear Reduction Agents	458	(1)
Solubilization of Polar Species	458	(1)
Additive--Additive Interactions	459	(3)
Strength and Type of Additive--Additive Interactions	459	(1)
Effect of Additive--Additive Interactions on Oxidation Stability	460	(1)
Effect of Additive--Additive Interactions on Antiwear and Anti-EP Performance	460	(1)
Effect of Additive--Additive Interactions on High-Temperature Deposit Formation	461	(1)
General Formulations Utilizing Detergents and Dispersants in Lubricants	462	(11)
Use of Detergents and Dispersants in Engine Oil Formulations	462	(2)
Use of Detergents and Dispersants in Automatic Transmission Fluids and Gear Oils	464	(1)
References	465	(8)
N-Alkyl Amide Sulfates	473	(10)
Hiromoto Mizushima
Synthesis	475	(1)
Chemical Stability in Water	476	(1)
Micellar Properties	477	(1)
Critical Micellization Concentration (CMC)	477	(1)
Micelle Ionization Degree	478	(1)
Krafft Temperature	478	(3)
Basic Properties as Shampoo Detergent	481	(1)
Foaming Capacity	481	(1)
Mildness	481	(1)
Concluding Remarks	482	(1)
Acknowledgement	482	(1)
References	482	(1)
Future Outlook for Detergent Formulations	483	(36)
Kenneth N. Price
Introduction	484	(3)
Economics	487	(6)
Business Environment	487	(1)
Efficiency Breakthroughs	488	(3)
More Cost-Effective Design Tools	491	(1)
Predictive High-Throughput Screening and Computational Modeling	491	(1)
Formulation Work Process---Virtual Formulation	492	(2)
Cross Fertilization and Importation of Solutions from Other Industries	494
Consumer Trends---Simplicity and Enhanced Sensory Experiences	493	(4)
Innovations in Appliances	497	(2)
Compatibility and Complementarity---Innovations in Textiles and Home Hard Surfaces	499	(5)
Hard Surfaces Innovations	499	(3)
Textile Innovations	502	(1)
What Functional Textiles and Hard Surfaces Imply for Detergents	503	(1)
Other Textile Trends	503	(1)
Innovations in Devices and Substrates---Holistic Solutions	504	(1)
Environmental and Regulatory Considerations	505	(6)
New Chemical Regulations	505	(2)
Sustainability---Important Design Themes for Detergents	507	(1)
Cool Water Performance	508	(2)
More Efficient Rinse Processes	510	(1)
Miscellaneous Design Directions	511	(8)
``Reinvented'' Liquid Detergents	511	(3)
Home Dry Cleaning	514	(1)
Partitioned/Staged Chemistry	515	(1)
Advances in Catalytic Chemistry	515	(2)
References	517	(2)
Index	519