Handbook of Tribology

by Bhushan, Bharat; Gupta, B. K.

• ISBN13: 9781575240503
• ISBN10: 1575240505
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1997-09-01
• Publisher: Krieger Pub Co

Table of Contents

Preface	xix
Chapter 1. Introduction	1.1
1.1 Liquid Lubrication	1.1	(10)
1.1.1. Fatty Oils	1.9	(1)
1.1.2. Petroleum-Based Oils	1.9	(1)
1.1.3. Synthetic Oils	1.10	(1)
1.1.4. Greases	1.10	(1)
1.2. Solid Lubrication	1.11	(3)
1.2.1. Bulk Solids	1.11	(1)
1.2.2. Soft Coatings	1.12	(1)
1.2.3. Hard Coatings	1.13	(1)
1.3. Surface Treatments	1.14	(1)
1.4. References	1.14
Chapter 2. Friction, Wear, and Lubrication	2.1
2.1. Friction	2.1	(9)
2.1.1. Laws of Friction	2.1	(1)
2.1.2. Sliding Friction	2.2	(5)
2.1.2.1. Adhesion Component of Friction	2.2	(3)
2.1.2.2. Ploughing Component of Friction	2.5	(1)
2.1.2.3. Deformation Component of Friction	2.5	(1)
2.1.2.4. Other Components of Friction	2.6	(1)
2.1.3. Rolling Friction	2.7	(3)
2.1.3.1. Adhesion	2.7	(1)
2.1.3.2. Microslip	2.7	(2)
2.1.3.3. Elastic Hysteresis	2.9	(1)
2.1.3.4. Plastic Deformation	2.9	(1)
2.1.4. Coefficients of Friction for Various Material Combinations	2.10	(1)
2.2 Wear	2.10	(15)
2.2.1. Adhesive Wear	2.13	(5)
2.2.2. Abrasive Wear	2.18	(1)
2.2.3. Fatigue Wear	2.18	(2)
2.2.4. Corrosive Wear	2.20	(1)
2.2.5. Fretting Wear	2.21	(1)
2.2.6. Erosive Wear by Solid Particles and Fluids	2.21	(2)
2.2.7. Erosive Wear by Cavitation	2.23	(1)
2.2.8. Electrical Arc-Induced Wear	2.24	(1)
2.3. Wear Prevention	2.25	(4)
2.3.1. Reduction of Adhesive Wear	2.26	(1)
2.3.2. Reduction of Abrasive Wear	2.27	(1)
2.3.3. Reduction of Fatigue Wear	2.28	(1)
2.3.4. Reduction of Erosive Wear	2.28	(1)
2.3.5. Reduction of Electrical Arc-Induced Wear	2.29	(1)
2.4. Lubrication	2.29	(7)
2.4.1. Hydrostatic Lubrication	2.31	(2)
2.4.2. Hydrodynamic Lubrication	2.33	(1)
2.4.3. Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication	2.34	(1)
2.4.4. Mixed Lubrication	2.34	(1)
2.4.5. Boundary Lubrication	2.35	(1)
2.4.6. Solid-Film Lubrication	2.36	(1)
2.5. References	2.36
Chapter 3. Physics of Tribological Materials	3.1
3.1. Nature of Solid Surfaces	3.1	(2)
3.2. The Shape of Surfaces	3.3	(3)
3.3. Properties of Surfaces	3.6	(9)
3.3.1. Solid-State Bounding	3.6	(2)
3.3.2. Crystaline Structure	3.8	(3)
3.3.3. Surface Defects	3.11	(3)
3.3.3.1. Point Imperfections	3.11	(1)
3.3.3.2. Line Imperfections	3.11	(2)
3.3.3.3. Surface Imperfections	3.13	(1)
3.4. Surface Interactions with Environment	3.14	(5)
3.4.1. Surface Reconstruction	3.15	(2)
3.4.2. Segregation	3.17	(1)
3.4.3. Physisorption	3.17	(1)
3.4.4. Chemisorption	3.18	(1)
3.4.5. Compound Formation	3.19	(1)
3.5. Phase Equilibria	3.19	(3)
3.6. Microstructural Effects on Friction and Wear	3.22	(12)
3.6.1. Effect of Microstructure on Friction	3.23	(5)
3.6.2. Effect of Microstructure on Wear	3.28	(6)
3.7. References	3.34
Chapter 4. Metals and Ceramics	4.1
4.1. Ferrous Metals	4.2	(20)
4.1.1. Cast Irons	4.2	(8)
4.1.1.1. Gray Cast Irons	4.7	(1)
4.1.1.2. Nodular Cast Irons	4.7	(2)
4.1.1.3. Malleable Cast Irons	4.9	(1)
4.1.1.4. White Cast Irons	4.9	(1)
4.1.1.5. Chilled Cast Irons	4.9	(1)
4.1.1.6. High-Alloy Cast Iron	4.9	(1)
4.1.2. Steels	4.10	(11)
4.1.2.1. Plain Carbon Steels	4.14	(1)
4.1.2.2. Low-Alloy Steels	4.14	(4)
4.1.2.3. HSLA Steels	4.18	(1)
4.1.2.4. Stainless Steels	4.18	(1)
4.1.2.5. Tool Steels	4.19	(2)
4.1.3. Ferrous Powder Metallurgy	4.21	(1)
4.1.4. Iron-Based Superalloys	4.21	(1)
4.2. Nonferrous Metals and Alloys	4.22	(20)
4.2.1. Precious Metals	4.23	(2)
4.2.2. Tin-and Lead-Based Alloys	4.25	(1)
4.2.3. Copper-Based Alloys	4.25	(4)
4.2.4. Aluminum-Based Alloys	4.29	(2)
4.2.5. Cobalt-Based Alloys	4.31	(2)
4.2.6. Nickel-Based Alloys	4.33	(5)
4.2.7. Refractory Metals	4.38	(1)
4.2.8. Titanium-Based Alloys	4.38	(2)
4.2.9. Silicon	4.40	(1)
4.2.10. Wear and Galling Characteristics of Metallic Pairs	4.40	(2)
4.3. Ceramics and Cermets	4.42	(37)
4.3.1. Classification and Properties of Ceramics and Cermets	4.49	(25)
4.3.1.1. Diamond	4.52	(11)
4.3.1.2. Carbides	4.63	(2)
4.3.1.3. Nitrides	4.65	(2)
4.3.1.4. Borides	4.67	(1)
4.3.1.5. Silicides	4.68	(1)
4.3.1.6. Oxides	4.68	(3)
4.3.1.7. Cermets: Cemented Carbides	4.71	(3)
4.3.2. Friction and Wear Properties of Ceramics	4.74	(5)
4.4. Ceramic-Metal Composites	4.79	(5)
4.4.1. Metal-Matrix Composites	4.79	(3)
4.4.1.1. Ceramic Whisker-Reinforced Metals	4.81	(1)
4.4.1.2. Filament-Reinforced Metals	4.82	(1)
4.4.2. Ceramic-Matrix Composites	4.82	(2)
4.5. References	4.84
Chapter 5. Solid Lubricants and Self-Lubricating Solids	5.1
5.1. Carbon and Graphite	5.1	(11)
5.1.1. Amorphous Carbon	5.2	(2)
5.1.2. Graphite	5.4	(8)
5.1.2.1. Crystal Structure	5.4	(1)
5.1.2.2. Lubrication Mechanism	5.5	(1)
5.1.2.3. Carbon-Graphite Solids	5.6	(2)
5.1.2.4. Dry Powders and Dispersions	5.8	(3)
5.1.2.5. Graphite Solids for Structural Applications	5.11	(1)
5.2. Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS(2)) and Other Dichalcogenides	5.12	(13)
5.2.1. Crystal Structure	5.15	(1)
5.2.2. Lubrication Properties	5.15	(6)
5.2.3. Dry Powders and Dispersions	5.21	(2)
5.2.4. Solids Impregnated with MoS(2)	5.23	(2)
5.3. Polymers	5.25	(28)
5.3.1. Plastics	5.29	(14)
5.3.1.1. Thermoplastic Plastics	5.29	(11)
5.3.1.2. Thermosetting Plastics	5.40	(3)
5.3.2. Elastomers	5.43	(10)
5.3.2.1. Natural Rubber	5.44	(1)
5.3.2.2. Synthetic Natural Rubber	5.44	(1)
5.3.2.3. Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR)	5.44	(1)
5.3.2.4. Butadiene-Acrylonitrile Rubber (Butyl)	5.45	(1)
5.3.2.5. Ethylene Propylene (EP)	5.45	(3)
5.3.2.6. Chloroprene (Neoprene)	5.48	(1)
5.3.2.7. Butadiene-Acrylonitrile (Buna-N, Nitrile, or NBR)	5.48	(1)
5.3.2.8. Polyacrylate	5.49	(1)
5.3.2.9. Fluoroelastomers	5.49	(1)
5.3.2.10. Silicone	5.50	(1)
5.3.2.11. Polyurethanes	5.51	(1)
5.3.2.12. Copolyesters	5.52	(1)
5.3.2.13. Olefins	5.52	(1)
5.4. Polymer Composites	5.53	(26)
5.4.1. Plastic Composites	5.55	(19)
5.4.1.1. Solid Fillers	5.55	(18)
5.4.1.2. Liquid-Lubricant Fillers	5.73	(1)
5.4.2. Elastomer Composites	5.74	(3)
5.4.3. Polymer Dispersions in Liquids	5.77	(2)
5.5. References	5.79	(9)
Appendix 5.A. Wear Behavior Characterization of Solid Lubricants and Self-Lubricating Solids	5.88
Chapter 6. Coating Deposition and Surface Treatment Techniques: Classification	6.1
6.1. Coating Deposition Techniques	6.1	(16)
6.1.1. Hard Facing	6.6	(4)
6.1.1.1. Thermal Spraying	6.6	(1)
6.1.1.2. Welding	6.7	(2)
6.1.1.3. Cladding	6.9	(1)
6.1.2. Vapor Deposition	6.10	(3)
6.1.2.1. Physical Vapor Deposition	6.10	(2)
6.1.2.2. Chemical Vapor Deposition	6.12	(1)
6.1.2.3. Physical-Chemical Vapor Deposition	6.12	(1)
6.1.3. Miscellaneous Techniques	6.13	(4)
6.1.3.1. Atomized Liquid Spray Coatings	6.13	(1)
6.1.3.2. Dip Coatings	6.14	(1)
6.1.3.3. Fluidized-Bed Coatings	6.14	(1)
6.1.3.4. Spin-On Coatings	6.14	(1)
6.1.3.5. Brush, Pad, and Roller Coatings	6.14	(1)
6.1.3.6. Sol-Gel Method	6.14	(1)
6.1.3.7. Screening and Lithography	6.14	(1)
6.1.3.8. Electrochemical Deposition	6.15	(1)
6.1.3.9. Chemical Deposition	6.15	(1)
6.1.3.10. Chemical Conversion Coatings	6.15	(2)
6.1.3.11. Intermetallic Compound Coatings	6.17	(1)
6.1.3.12. Spark Hardening	6.17	(1)
6.2. Surface Treatment Techniques	6.17	(5)
6.2.1. Microstructural Treatments	6.18	(2)
6.2.1.1. Induction Hardening	6.19	(1)
6.2.1.2. Flame Hardening	6.19	(1)
6.2.1.3. Laser Hardening	6.19	(1)
6.2.1.4. Electron Beam Hardening	6.19	(1)
6.2.1.5. Chill Casting	6.19	(1)
6.2.1.6. Work Hardening	6.19	(1)
6.2.2. Diffusion Treatments	6.20	(2)
6.2.2.1. Carburizing	6.20	(1)
6.2.2.2. Carbonitriding	6.20	(1)
6.2.2.3. Nitriding	6.21	(1)
6.2.2.4. Nitrocarburizing	6.21	(1)
6.2.2.5. Boriding	6.21	(1)
6.2.2.6. Chromizing	6.21	(1)
6.2.2.7. Aluminizing	6.21	(1)
6.2.2.8. Siliconizing	6.21	(1)
6.2.2.9. Sherardizing	6.22	(1)
6.2.3. Implantation Treatments	6.22	(1)
6.2.3.1. Ion Implantation	6.22	(1)
6.2.3.2. Ion Beam Mixing	6.22	(1)
6.3. Criteria for Selecting Coating Material/Deposition and Surface Treatment Techniques	6.22	(5)
6.4. References	6.27
Chapter 7. Surface Preparation for Coating Deposition	7.1
7.1. Cleaning	7.2	(11)
7.1.1. Solvent Cleaning	7.6	(3)
7.1.2. Emulsion Cleaning	7.9	(1)
7.1.3. Alkaline Cleaning	7.9	(1)
7.1.4. Acid Cleaning	7.10	(1)
7.1.5. Pickling	7.10	(1)
7.1.6. Salt Bath Descaling	7.11	(1)
7.1.7. Ultrasonic Cleaning	7.12	(1)
7.1.8. Plasma Cleaning	7.12	(1)
7.2. Roughening	7.13	(5)
7.2.1. Abrasive Blasting	7.14	(1)
7.2.2. Barrel Finishing	7.15	(1)
7.2.3. Mechanical Polishing and Buffing	7.15	(2)
7.2.4. Chemical Etching	7.17	(1)
7.2.5. Electropolishing or Electroetching	7.17	(1)
7.3. Monitoring Surface Cleaning and Roughening	7.18	(4)
7.4. References	7.22
Chapter 8. Coating Deposition by Hard Facing	8.1
8.1. Thermal Spraying	8.7	(20)
8.1.1. Flame Spraying	8.8	(2)
8.1.2. Spray-and-Fuse Process	8.11	(1)
8.1.3. Plasma Arc Spraying	8.12	(1)
8.1.4. Low-Pressure Plasma Spraying	8.13	(2)
8.1.5. Detonation-Gun Spraying	8.15	(3)
8.1.6. Electric Arc Spraying	8.18	(1)
8.1.7. Coatings Deposited by Thermal Spraying	8.19	(8)
8.1.7.1. Coating Materials	8.19	(2)
8.1.7.2. Deposition Process Parameters	8.21	(1)
8.1.7.3. Coating Adhesion	8.21	(3)
8.1.7.4. Substrate Pretreatments	8.24	(1)
8.1.7.5. Coating Posttreatments	8.25	(1)
8.1.7.6. Coating Microstructure	8.26	(1)
8.2. Welding	8.27	(15)
8.2.1. Oxyfuel Gas Welding	8.29	(1)
8.2.2. Electric Arc Welding	8.29	(6)
8.2.2.1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding	8.31	(1)
8.2.2.2. Submerged Arc Welding	8.32	(1)
8.2.2.3. Electroslag Welding	8.33	(1)
8.2.2.4. Self-Shielded Arc Welding	8.33	(1)
8.2.2.5. Gas Metal Arc Welding	8.34	(1)
8.2.2.6. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding	8.34	(1)
8.2.3. Plasma Arc Welding	8.35	(1)
8.2.4. Coatings Deposited by Welding	8.36	(6)
8.2.4.1. Coating Materials	8.36	(1)
8.2.4.2. Coating Filler Form	8.37	(3)
8.2.4.3. Substrate Pretreatments	8.40	(1)
8.2.4.4. Coating Posttreatments	8.40	(1)
8.2.4.5. Coating Microstructure	8.41	(1)
8.3. Cladding	8.42	(16)
8.3.1. Mechanical Methods	8.43	(3)
8.3.1.1. Roll Cladding	8.43	(3)
8.3.1.2. Coextrusion Cladding	8.46	(1)
8.3.2. Explosive Cladding	8.46	(3)
8.3.3. Electromagnetic Impact Bonding	8.49	(2)
8.3.4. Diffusion Bonding	8.51	(1)
8.3.5. Braze Cladding	8.52	(5)
8.3.5.1. Furnace Brazing	8.55	(1)
8.3.5.2. Torch Brazing	8.55	(1)
8.3.5.3. Resistance Brazing	8.55	(1)
8.3.5.4. Dip Brazing	8.56	(1)
8.3.5.5. Induction Brazing	8.56	(1)
8.3.5.6. Laser Brazing	8.56	(1)
8.3.6. Weld Cladding	8.57	(1)
8.3.7. Laser Cladding	8.57	(1)
8.4. References	8.58
Chapter 9. Coating Deposition from Vapor Phase	9.1
9.1. Evaporation	9.7	(26)
9.1.1. Theory of Vacuum Evaporation	9.9	(2)
9.1.2. Details of Evaporation Processes	9.11	(7)
9.1.2.1. Direct Evaporation	9.11	(1)
9.1.2.2. Reactive Evaporation	9.11	(2)
9.1.2.3. Activated Reactive Evaporation	9.13	(4)
9.1.2.4. Ion-Beam-Assisted Evaporation	9.17	(1)
9.1.3. Vapor Sources to Support the Evaporant	9.18	(1)
9.1.4. Heating Methods	9.19	(7)
9.1.4.1. Resistive Heating	9.19	(1)
9.1.4.2. Radiation Heating	9.20	(1)
9.1.4.3. RF Induction Heating	9.21	(1)
9.1.4.4. Electric Arc Heating	9.22	(1)
9.1.4.5. Laser Heating	9.22	(1)
9.1.4.6. Electron Beam Heating	9.23	(3)
9.1.5. Evaporation of Multicomponent/Compound Coatings	9.26	(1)
9.1.5.1. Multiple-Source Evaporation	9.26	(1)
9.1.5.2. Flash Evaporation	9.26	(1)
9.1.5.3. Continuous Feed	9.27	(1)
9.1.6. Coatings Deposited by Evaporation	9.27	(1)
9.1.6.1. Coating Materials	9.27	(2)
9.1.6.2. Microstructure and Stoichiometry of Evaporated Coatings	9.29	(3)
9.1.6.3. Properties of Evaporated Coatings	9.32	(1)
9.2. Ion Plating	9.33	(18)
9.2.1. Glow-Discharge Ion Plating	9.34	(11)
9.2.1.1. Transport Kinetice Considerations	9.35	(3)
9.2.1.2. Details of Glow-Discharge Ion Plating Processes	9.38	(7)
9.2.2. Ion Beam Ion-Plating Processes	9.45	(5)
9.2.2.1. Ion Sources	9.46	(1)
9.2.2.2. Details of Ion Beam Ion-Plating Processes	9.47	(3)
9.2.3. Coatings Deposited by Ion Plating	9.50	(1)
9.2.3.1. Coating Materials	9.50	(1)
9.2.3.2. Properties of Ion-Plated Coatings	9.51	(1)
9.3. Sputtering	9.51	(33)
9.3.1. Sputtering Mechanisms	9.55	(3)
9.3.2. Details of Sputtering Processes	9.58	(15)
9.3.2.1. Glow-Discharge Sputtering	9.59	(11)
9.3.2.2. Ion Beam Sputtering	9.70	(3)
9.3.3. Coatings Deposited by Sputtering	9.73	(11)
9.3.3.1. Coating Materials	9.73	(1)
9.3.3.2. Microstructure of Glow-Discharge Sputtered Coatings	9.74	(3)
9.3.3.3. Residual Stresses	9.77	(1)
9.3.3.4. Factors Influencing the Stoichiometry of Glow-Discharge Sputtered Compound Coatings	9.77	(2)
9.3.3.5. Factors Influencing the Deposition Rate in Glow-Discharge Sputtering	9.79	(1)
9.3.3.6. Properties of Glow-Discharge Sputtered Coatings	9.80	(4)
9.4. Chemical Vapor Deposition	9.84	(19)
9.4.1. Thermodynamic and Kinetic Considerations	9.86	(2)
9.4.1.1. Thermodynamics	9.87	(1)
9.4.1.2. Kinetics	9.87	(1)
9.4.2. Examples of CVD Reactions	9.88	(2)
9.4.2.1. Pyrolysis (Thermal Decomposition)	9.88	(1)
9.4.2.2. Chemical Reactions	9.88	(2)
9.4.3. Details of CVD Processes	9.90	(6)
9.4.3.1. Conventional CVD Processes	9.90	(2)
9.4.3.2. Low-Pressure CVD	9.92	(2)
9.4.3.3. Laser-Induced CVD	9.94	(1)
9.4.3.4. Electron Assisted CVD	9.94	(2)
9.4.4. Coatings Deposited by CVD	9.96	(7)
9.4.4.1. Coating Materials	9.96	(3)
9.4.4.2. Microstructure of CVD Coatings	9.99	(1)
9.4.4.3. Factors Influencing the Deposition Rate	9.100	(2)
9.4.4.4. Properties of CVD Coatings	9.102	(1)
9.5. Physical-Chemical Vapor Deposition	9.103	(18)
9.5.1. Theory of PECVD	9.104	(1)
9.5.1.1. Glow-Discharge Plasmas	9.104	(1)
9.5.1.2. Transport Kinetics	9.105	(1)
9.5.2. Details of PECVD Processes	9.105	(7)
9.5.2.1. Coatings Deposited by PECVD	9.109	(3)
9.5.3. Details of Reactive Pulsed Plasma Deposition Process	9.112	(1)
9.5.4. Details of Chemical Vapor Polymerization Processes	9.113	(8)
9.5.4.1. Mechanisms of Glow-Discharge Polymerization	9.115	(2)
9.5.4.2. Details of Glow-Discharge Polymerization Processes	9.117	(1)
9.5.4.3. Coating Deposited by Glow-Discharge Polymerization	9.118	(3)
9.6. References	9.121	(15)
Appendix 9.A. Glow-Discharge Plasmas	9.136	(5)
9.A.1. Theory of DC Glow-Discharge Plasmas	9.136	(2)
9.A.2. Potentials in RF Glow-Discharge Plasmas	9.138	(3)
9.A.3. Enhanced Ionization Sources	9.141	(1)
Appendix 9.B. Vacuum Systems Used for Vapor Deposition Processes	9.141
Chapter 10. Coating Deposition by Miscellaneous Techniques	10.1
10.1. Atomized Liquid Spray Processes	10.1	(14)
10.1.1. Air Spray	10.6	(2)
10.1.2. Hot Spray	10.8	(1)
10.1.3. Airless Spray	10.8	(1)
10.1.4. Electrostatic Spray	10.9	(2)
10.1.5. Spray Pyrolysis	10.11	(1)
10.1.6. Spray Fusion	10.12	(1)
10.1.7. Coatings Deposited by Spray Processes	10.13	(2)
10.2. Dip Coatings	10.15	(1)
10.3. Fluidized-Bed Coatings	10.16	(1)
10.4. Spin-On Coating	10.17	(1)
10.5. Brush, Pad, and Roller Coatings	10.18	(1)
10.6. Sol-Gel Coatings	10.19	(1)
10.7. Screening and Lithography	10.20	(2)
10.7.1. Screening	10.20	(1)
10.7.2. Lithography	10.20	(2)
10.8. Electrochemical Deposition	10.22	(12)
10.8.1. The Electrolysis Process	10.22	(2)
10.8.2. Electrochemistry of Electroplating	10.24	(1)
10.8.3. Surface Preparation for Electroplating	10.25	(1)
10.8.4. Electroplating of Metals	10.26	(4)
10.8.4.1. Chromium	10.28	(1)
10.8.4.2. Nickel	10.29	(1)
10.8.5. Electroplating of Alloys	10.30	(3)
10.8.6. Electroplated Composites	10.33	(1)
10.8.7. Electrophoretic Deposits	10.33	(1)
10.9. Chemical Deposition	10.34	(6)
10.9.1. Chemical Reduction	10.35	(1)
10.9.2. Electroless Deposition	10.35	(5)
10.9.2.1. Nickel-Phosphorus (Ni-P)	10.36	(2)
10.9.2.2. Nickel-Boron (Ni-B)	10.38	(1)
10.9.2.3. Pure Ni	10.39	(1)
10.9.2.4. Other metals	10.39	(1)
10.9.2.5. Polyalloys	10.40	(1)
10.9.2.6. Composites	10.40	(1)
10.10. Chemical Conversion Coatings	10.40	(16)
10.10.1. Phosphate Coatings	10.41	(3)
10.10.1.1. Crystalline-Type Phosphate Coating	10.42	(1)
10.10.1.2. Amorphous-Type Phosphate Coating	10.43	(1)
10.10.1.3. Properties of Phosphate Coatings	10.43	(1)
10.10.2. Chromate Conversion Coatings	10.44	(1)
10.10.3. Oxide Coatings	10.45	(1)
10.10.4. Anodizing	10.46	(7)
10.10.4.1. Liquid Anodizing	10.48	(1)
10.10.4.2. Gaseous Anodizing	10.48	(5)
10.10.4.3. Properties of Anodized Aluminum	10.53	(1)
10.10.5. Sulfide Coatings	10.53	(2)
10.10.6. Metalliding	10.55	(1)
10.11. Intermetallic Compound Coatings	10.56	(4)
10.11.1. Coatings on Ferrous Metal Substrates	10.57	(1)
10.11.2. Coatings on Nonferrous Substrates	10.57	(3)
10.12. Spark Hardening	10.60	(3)
10.13. References	10.63
Chapter 11. Surface Treatments by Thermal and Chemical Processes	11.1
11.1. Microstructural Treatments	11.3	(13)
11.1.1. Induction Hardening	11.4	(4)
11.1.2. Flame Hardening	11.8	(1)
11.1.3. Laser Hardening	11.8	(2)
11.1.4. Electron Beam Hardening	11.10	(1)
11.1.5. Chill Casting	11.11	(3)
11.1.6. Cold Working	11.14	(2)
11.1.6.1. Metal Working	11.14	(1)
11.1.6.2. Shot Peening	11.15	(1)
11.2. Chemical Diffusion Treatments	11.16	(36)
11.2.1. Austenitic Carburizing	11.17	(9)
11.2.1.1. Pack Carburizing	11.20	(1)
11.2.1.2. Liquid Carburizing	11.21	(2)
11.2.1.3. Conventional Gas Carburizing	11.23	(1)
11.2.1.4. Vacuum Carburizing	11.24	(1)
11.2.1.5. Plasma Carburizing	11.24	(2)
11.2.1.6. Properties of Carburized Steels	11.26	(1)
11.2.2. Austenitic Carbonitriding	11.26	(3)
11.2.2.1. Liquid Carbonitriding	11.27	(1)
11.2.2.2. Gas Carbonitriding	11.28	(1)
11.2.2.3. Properties of Carbonitrided Steels	11.28	(1)
11.2.3. Ferritic Nitriding	11.29	(3)
11.2.3.1. Pack Nitriding	11.30	(1)
11.2.3.2. Conventional Gas Nitriding	11.30	(1)
11.2.3.3. Plasma Nitriding	11.31	(1)
11.2.3.4. Propereties of Nitrided Steels	11.32	(1)
11.2.4. Ferritic Nitrocarburizing	11.32	(4)
11.2.4.1. Liquid Nitrocarburizing	11.34	(1)
11.2.4.2. Conventional Gas Nitrocarburizing	11.35	(1)
11.2.4.3. Plasma Nitrocarburizing	11.36	(1)
11.2.4.4. Properties of Nitrocarburized Steels	11.36	(1)
11.2.5. Boriding	11.36	(9)
11.2.5.1. Pack Boriding	11.39	(1)
11.2.5.2. Liquid Boriding	11.40	(1)
11.2.5.3. Gas Boriding	11.40	(1)
11.2.5.4. Properties of Borided Metals	11.40	(5)
11.2.6. Chromizing	11.45	(4)
11.2.7. Aluminizing	11.49	(1)
11.2.8. Siliconizing	11.50	(1)
11.2.9. Sherardizing	11.51	(1)
11.3. References	11.52
Chapter 12. Surface Treatments by Ion Beams	12.1
12.1. Ion Implantation	12.2	(40)
12.1.1. Implantation Metallurgy	12.5	(6)
12.1.1.1. Physical Configuration of Implanted Species	12.8	(1)
12.1.1.2. Supersaturated Crystalline Solutions	12.8	(1)
12.1.1.3. Metastable Crystalline Structures	12.8	(1)
12.1.1.4. Amorphous Phases	12.9	(1)
12.1.1.5. Equilibrium-Phase Alloys	12.10	(1)
12.1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Ion Implantation	12.11	(1)
12.1.3. Ion Implantation Equipment	12.12	(4)
12.1.3.1. Ion Sources	12.14	(1)
12.1.3.2. Ion Beam Extractor System	12.14	(1)
12.1.3.3. Accelerators and Analyzing Systems	12.14	(2)
12.1.3.4. Ion Beam Scanning	12.16	(1)
12.1.4. Materials Treated by Ion Implantation	12.16	(1)
12.1.5. Characteristics of Ion Implanted Materials	12.17	(25)
12.1.5.1. Microhardness	12.17	(4)
12.1.5.2. Fracture Toughness	12.21	(3)
12.1.5.3. Flexural Strength	12.24	(1)
12.1.5.4. Friction	12.25	(2)
12.1.5.5. Wear	12.27	(10)
12.1.5.6. Fatigue	12.37	(3)
12.1.5.7. Corrosion	12.40	(2)
12.2. Ion Beam Mixing	12.42	(12)
12.2.1. Properties of Ion Beam Mixed Solid Lubricant and Hard Coatings on Metals	12.47	(4)
12.2.2. Properties of Ion Beam Mixed Hard Coatings on Ceramics	12.51	(3)
12.3. References	12.54
Chapter 13. Soft Coatings	13.1
13.1. Layered Lattice Solid Coatings	13.4	(27)
13.1.1. Graphite	13.4	(4)
13.1.1.1. Bonded Graphite Coatings	13.6	(2)
13.1.1.2. Ion-Plated Grpahite Coatings	13.8	(1)
13.1.2. Graphite Fluoride	13.8	(3)
13.1.3. Molybdenum Disulfide	13.11	(18)
13.1.3.1. Bonded MoS(2) Coatings	13.12	(7)
13.1.3.2. Sputtered MoS(2) Coatings	13.19	(10)
13.1.4. Other Layered Lattice Solid Coatings	13.29	(2)
13.2. Nonlayered Lattice Solid Lubricant Coatings	13.31	(19)
13.2.1. PbO-Based Coatings	13.32	(4)
13.2.2. Fluoride-Based Coatings	13.36	(14)
13.2.2.1. Ceramic-Bonded and Fusion-Bonded Coatings	13.37	(3)
13.2.2.2. Fluoride-Metal Composites	13.40	(1)
13.2.2.3. Fluoride-Metal Plasma Sprayed Composite Coatings	13.40	(4)
13.2.2.4. Fluoride-Carbide Composite Plasma Sprayed Coatings	13.44	(5)
13.2.2.5. Fluoride-Oxide Composite Plasma Sprayed Coatings	13.49	(1)
13.3. Polymer Coatings	13.50	(8)
13.3.1. Resin-Bonded Polymer Coatings	13.51	(5)
13.3.2. Physical Vapor Deposited Polymer Coatings	13.56	(1)
13.3.3. Plasma Polymerized Coatings	13.57	(1)
13.4. Soft Metallic Coatings	13.58	(12)
13.4.1. Electrochemically Deposited Soft Metals	13.59	(3)
13.4.2. Ion-Plated Soft Metallic Coatings	13.62	(7)
13.4.2.1. Coating Thickness Effects	13.63	(1)
13.4.2.2. Substrate Surface Roughness Effects	13.64	(1)
13.4.2.3. Effect of Sliding Speed	13.64	(1)
13.4.2.4. Effect of Load	13.65	(1)
13.4.2.5. Effect of Alloying Elements	13.68	(1)
13.4.2.6. Effect of Interlayers	13.68	(1)
13.4.3. Thermal-Sprayed and Weld Deposited Soft Metals	13.69	(1)
13.5. References	13.70	(9)
Appendix 13.A: Surface Pretreatments and Binder Materials for Bonded Coatings	13.79
13.A.1. Surface Pretreatments	13.79	(1)
13.A.2. Binder Materials	13.80	(1)
13.A.3. Organic Binder Materials	13.80	(1)
13.A.4. Inorganic Binder Materials	13.81
Chapter 14. Hard Coatings	14.1
14.1. Ferrous-Based Alloy Coatings	14.5	(1)
14.2. Nonferrous Metallic Coatings	14.5	(16)
14.2.1. Chromium Coatings	14.5	(9)
14.2.1.1. Cr Coatings Applied by Electrochemical Deposition	14.7	(3)
14.2.1.2. Cr Coatings Applied by PVD	14.10	(3)
14.2.1.3. Cr Coatings Applied by CVD	14.13	(1)
14.2.1.4. Cr Composite Coatings Applied by Electrochemical Deposition	14.14	(1)
14.2.2. Nickel Coatings	14.14	(5)
14.2.2.1. Ni Coatings Applied by Electrochemical Deposition	14.14	(1)
14.2.2.2. Ni Coatings Applied by Electroless Deposition	14.14	(2)
14.2.2.3. Ni Coatings Applied by CVD	14.16	(3)
14.2.2.4. Ni Composite Coatings Applied by Electroless Deposition	14.19	(1)
14.2.3. Molybdenum Coatings	14.19	(2)
14.3. Cobalt- and Nickel-Based Alloy Coatings	14.21	(9)
14.3.1. Cobalt-Based Alloy Coatings	14.22	(4)
14.3.2. Ni-Based Alloy Coatings	14.26	(1)
14.3.3. Other Alloy Coatings	14.27	(1)
14.3.4. Sliding Wear and Corrosion Resistance of Various Hard Alloy Coatings	14.28	(2)
14.4. Ceramic Coatings	14.30	(98)
14.4.1. Oxide Coatings	14.30	(19)
14.4.1.1. Alumina and Alumina-Titania Coatings	14.32	(9)
14.4.1.2. Chromia Coatings	14.41	(4)
14.4.1.3. Zirconia Coatings	14.45	(4)
14.4.1.4. Other Oxide Coatings	14.48	(1)
14.4.1.5. Proprietary Oxide Coatings	14.49	(1)
14.4.2. Carbide Coatings	14.49	(26)
14.4.2.1. Titanium Carbide Coatings	14.50	(14)
14.4.2.2. Tungsten Carbide Coatings	14.64	(5)
14.4.2.3. Chromium Carbide Coatings	14.69	(4)
14.4.2.4. Hafnium Carbide and Zirconium Carbide Coatings	14.73	(1)
14.4.2.5. Silicon Carbide Coatings	14.73	(1)
14.4.2.6. Other Carbide Coatings	14.74	(1)
14.4.3. Nitride Coatings	14.75	(24)
14.4.3.1. Titanium Nitride Coatings	14.75	(11)
14.4.3.2. Hafnium Nitride and Zirconium Nitride Coatings	14.86	(4)
14.4.3.3. Silicon Nitride Coatings	14.90	(3)
14.4.3.4. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) Coatings	14.93	(2)
14.4.3.5. Other Nitride Coatings	14.95	(2)
14.4.3.6. Polynitride Coatings	14.97	(2)
14.4.4. Boride Coatings	14.99	(3)
14.4.5. Silicide Coatings	14.102	(1)
14.4.6. Hard Carbon Coatings	14.103	(25)
14.4.6.1. Amorphous Carbon Coatings	14.106	(18)
14.4.6.2. Diamond Coatings	14.124	(4)
14.5. References	14.128
Chapter 15. Screening Methodology for Materials, Coatings, and Surface Treatments	15.1
15.1. Physical Examinations	15.1	(57)
15.1.1. Techniques for Coating-Thickness Measurements	15.2	(15)
15.1.1.1. Optical Techniques	15.2	(4)
15.1.1.2. Mechanical Techniques	15.6	(2)
15.1.1.3. Electrical Techniques	15.8	(3)
15.1.1.4. Magnetic/Electromagnetic Techniques	15.11	(1)
15.1.1.5. Radiation Techniques	15.12	(3)
15.1.1.6. Miscellaneous Techniques	15.15	(4)
15.1.2. Techniques for Coating-Density Measurements	15.17	(1)
15.1.2.1. Measurement of Coating Mass and Thickness	15.17	(1)
15.1.2.2. Sink or Float Technique	15.17	(2)
15.1.3. Techniques for Coating Porosity Measurements	15.19	(5)
15.1.3.1. Direct Observation	15.20	(1)
15.1.3.2. Indirect Detection	15.21	(3)
15.1.4. Techniques for Electrical-Resistivity Measurements	15.24	(2)
15.1.4.1. Two-Point Probe Technique	15.24	(1)
15.1.4.2. Four-Point Probe Technique	15.25	(1)
15.1.5. Techniques for Surface-Roughness Measurements	15.26	(3)
15.1.5.1. Stylus Instrument	15.28	(1)
15.1.5.2. Noncontact Digital Optical Profiler (DOP)	15.29	(1)
15.1.6. Techniques for Hardness Measurements	15.29	(10)
15.1.6.1. Static Indentation Hardness Test	15.31	(5)
15.1.6.2. Rebound or Dynamic Hardness Tests	15.36	(1)
15.1.6.3. Scratch Hardness Tests	15.37	(1)
15.1.6.4. Static Indentation Hardness Tests on Polymers	15.38	(1)
15.1.7. Techniques for Measuring Residual Stresses	15.39	(6)
15.1.7.1. Deformation Methods	15.40	(3)
15.1.7.2. X-Ray, Electron-, and Neutron-Diffraction Methods	15.43	(2)
15.1.7.3. Miscellaneous Methods	15.45	(1)
15.1.8. Techniques for Adhesion Measurements	15.45	(13)
15.1.8.1. Nucleation Methods	15.46	(1)
15.1.8.2. Mechanical Methods	15.47	(9)
15.1.8.3. Miscellaneous Methods	15.56	(2)
15.2. Friction and Wear Tests	15.58	(11)
15.2.1. Design Methodology	15.59	(3)
15.2.1.1. Simulation	15.59	(1)
15.2.1.2. Acceleration	15.60	(1)
15.2.1.3. Specimen Preparation	15.60	(1)
15.2.1.4. Friction and Wear Measurements	15.60	(2)
15.2.2. Typical Test Geometries	15.62	(7)
15.2.2.1. Sliding Friction and Wear Tests	15.62	(2)
15.2.2.2. Abrasion Tests	15.64	(2)
15.2.2.3. Rolling-Contact Fatigue Tests	15.66	(1)
15.2.2.4. Solid-Particle Erosion Test	15.66	(1)
15.2.2.5. Corrosion Tests	15.66	(3)
15.3. References	15.69
Chapter 16. Tribological Applications of Materials, Coatings, and Surface Treatments	16.1
16.1. Sliding-Contact Bearings	16.1	(3)
16.2. Rolling-Contact Bearings	16.4	(3)
16.2.1. Bearings and Races	16.5	(2)
16.2.2. Retainers or Cages	16.7	(1)
16.3. Seals	16.7	(2)
16.4. Gears	16.9	(1)
16.5. Cams and Tappets	16.10	(4)
16.6. Piston Rings	16.14	(3)
16.6.1. Lubricated Piston Rings	16.15	(2)
16.6.2. Unlubricated Piston Rings	16.17	(1)
16.7. Electrical Brushes	16.17	(2)
16.8. Cutting Tools	16.19	(4)
16.8.1. Bulk Tool Materials	16.21	(1)
16.8.2. Coatings	16.22	(1)
16.9. Forming Tools	16.23	(2)
16.10. Gas Turbine Engine	16.25	(8)
16.10.1. Coating Protection Mechanisms	16.28	(1)
16.10.2. Types of Coatings Used	16.28	(5)
16.10.2.1. Diffusion Coatings	16.28	(1)
16.10.2.2. MCrAlY Overlay Coatings	16.29	(1)
16.10.2.3. Thermal-Barrier Coatings	16.29	(3)
16.10.2.4. Coatings for Erosion Resistance	16.32	(1)
16.11. Fusion Reactors	16.33	(2)
16.12. Magnetic Storage Devices	16.35	(4)
16.12.1. Tape Drives	16.35	(2)
16.12.2. Floppy-Disk Drives	16.37	(1)
16.12.3. Rigid-Disk Drives	16.37	(2)
16.13. References	16.39
Author Index	A.1 (follo
Subject Index	S.1 (follo