Health and Environmental Risk Analysis Fundamentals with Applications

by Louvar, Joseph F.; Louvar, B. Diane

• ISBN13: 9780131277397
• ISBN10: 0131277391
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1997-11-10
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

This is the first book to bring together comprehensive resources for understanding, eliminating and mitigating industrial risks, especially those associated with chemical production.A detailed understanding of risk analysis is essential in an era where governments and companies are increasingly aware of their health, safety and environmental responsibilities, yet resources are limited. This book covers all the fundamental concepts of risk analysis and ties them together with OSHA Process Safety Management and EPA Risk Management regulations. Using many examples and illustrations, it thoroughly reviews topics like: process descriptions, hazard identification, source models, fault tree analysis, consequence analysis, exposure assessment, and radiation risk assessment. There is also detailed coverage of the relationship between risk analysis and ISO 14000 standards.For: professional environmental safety, health and R&D professionals in government, communities, and chemical companies; or at storage and transportation facilities. Also for advanced students in risk analysis.

Author Biography

JOSEPH F. LOUVAR is Director of the Research Services Unit for the BASF Corporation in Wyandotte, MI. His responsibilities include the management of a specialty chemicals manufacturing plant that complies with OSHA and EPA regulations and is ISO 9001 certified. He is co-author of the companion text Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications.

B. DIANE LOUVAR is Associate Professor at Madonna University in Livonia, MI. in the Department of Computer and Quantitative Systems. She teaches courses in statistics and management information systems including topics in effective communications risk analysis and ISO certification.

Table of Contents

PREFACE	XVII	(3)
ABOUT THE ICONS	XX	(1)
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS	XXI	(2)
NOMENCLATURE	XXIII
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION	1	(22)
1.1 Characteristics of Risk Analysis	1	(3)
SCOPE OF RISK ANALYSIS	2	(1)
JUSTIFICATION FOR RISK ANALYSIS	2	(1)
SIGNIFICANCE OF RISKS	3	(1)
ACCEPTABLE RISK	4	(1)
1.2 Basic Definitions	4	(1)
1.3 Risk Analysis	5	(5)
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION	6	(1)
SOURCES	6	(2)
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT	8	(1)
DOSE-RESPONSE ASSESSMENT	8	(1)
RISK CHARACTERIZATION	8	(1)
RISK MANAGEMENT	9	(1)
RISK COMMUNICATION	9	(1)
REGULATIONS	9	(1)
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS	9	(1)
1.4 Historical Perspectives	10	(1)
HISTORY	10	(1)
FUTURE	11	(1)
1.5 Hazard Control	11	(6)
GENERAL	11	(2)
PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT AND RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN	13	(1)
EMPLOYEE TRAINING AND EDUCATION	13	(4)
1.6 Learning Organization	17	(2)
AUDIT LEARNING MODEL	17	(2)
1.7 Management Commitment	19	(1)
References	20	(1)
Problems	21	(2)
CHAPTER 2 PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS	23	(25)
2.1 Format for Process Descriptions	23	(1)
2.2 Equipment Descriptions	24	(1)
VESSELS	24	(1)
UNIT OPERATIONS	24	(1)
PIPING	24	(1)
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS	25	(1)
2.3 Equipment Lists	25	(2)
2.4 Process Diagrams	27	(11)
BLOCK DIAGRAM	27	(1)
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM (PFD)	28	(1)
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P&IDs)	29	(5)
LAYOUTS	34	(1)
ISOMETRIC DIAGRAMS	34	(4)
2.5 Designs for Safety	38	(7)
REDUNDANCY	38	(2)
SAFEGUARDS	40	(1)
SHORT STOPS	40	(1)
RELIEFS	40	(1)
CONTAINMENT	41	(1)
DOUBLE BLOCK AND BLEED	41	(2)
FLAME ARRESTORS	43	(1)
EXPLOSION SUPPRESSION	43	(2)
INHERENT SAFETY	45	(1)
PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT	45	(1)
References	45	(1)
Problems	46	(2)
CHAPTER 3 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION	48	(36)
3.1 Introduction	49	(3)
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS	49	(2)
HUMAN BEHAVIOR	51	(1)
PROCESS TECHNOLOGY	51	(1)
SYSTEM DESIGN AND UTILIZATION	51	(1)
3.2 Elements of Process Safety Management (PSM)	52	(15)
EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION	52	(1)
PROCESS SAFETY INFORMATION (PSI)	53	(2)
PROCESS HAZARDS ANALYSIS (PHA)	55	(1)
OPERATING PROCEDURES	56	(1)
TRAINING	57	(1)
CONTRACTORS	58	(1)
PRE-STARTUP SAFETY REVIEW	59	(1)
MECHANICAL INTEGRITY	60	(1)
HOT WORK PERMIT	61	(2)
MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE	63	(1)
INCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS	63	(1)
EMERGENCY PLANNING AND RESPONSE	64	(2)
COMPLIANCE AUDITS	66	(1)
TRADE SECRET OVERRIDE	66	(1)
3.3 PSM Performance Measurements	67	(5)
PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTS	68	(2)
RECOMMENDED MEASUREMENTS	70	(2)
3.4 Case Histories	72	(8)
BROWN'S FERRY	72	(2)
THREE MILE ISLAND	74	(1)
CHERNOBYL	75	(1)
FLIXBOROUGH	76	(1)
SEVESO	76	(1)
BHOPAL	77	(1)
PIPER ALPHA	78	(1)
PASADENA TEXAS	79	(1)
Summary	80	(2)
References	82	(1)
Problems	83	(1)
CHAPTER 4 SOURCE MODELS	84	(37)
4.1 Source Options	85	(2)
4.2 Selection Process	87	(2)
4.3 Source Models for Liquids	89	(5)
LIQUID RELEASES THROUGH A HOLE	89	(2)
LIQUID RELEASES THROUGH A HOLE IN A TANK	91	(1)
FLOW OF LIQUID OUT OF PIPES	92	(2)
4.4 Source Models for Vapors	94	(4)
VAPOR RELEASES--NOT CHOKED	94	(1)
VAPOR RELEASES--CHOKED	95	(3)
4.5 Two-Phase Flow Source Models	98	(3)
RELEASES FROM HOLES	98	(1)
FLASHING LIQUID RELEASES	98	(3)
4.6 Source Model for Ventilated Room	101	(2)
4.7 Source Model for Evaporation	103	(2)
4.8 Releases from Relief Devices	105	(12)
LIQUID RELEASES FROM CONVENTIONAL AND BALANCED BELLOWS RELIEFS	106	(5)
VAPOR RELEASES FROM CONVENTIONAL AND BALANCED BELLOWS RELIEFS	111	(2)
LIQUID RELEASE FROM RUPTURE DISKS	113	(2)
VAPOR RELEASE FROM RUPTURE DISKS	115	(1)
TWO-PHASE RELEASES FOR RUNAWAY REACTIONS	116	(1)
Summary	117	(1)
References	118	(1)
Problems	119	(2)
CHAPTER 5 FAULT TREE ANALYSIS	121	(39)
5.1 Probability Theory	121	(4)
5.2 Combinatorial Analysis	125	(3)
TREE DIAGRAMS	126	(1)
COMBINATIONS	126	(1)
PERMUTATIONS	126	(2)
5.3 Failure Probability Models	128	(1)
5.4 Boolean Algebra	129	(5)
5.5 Fault Tree Concepts	134	(5)
SYMBOLOGY	135	(4)
FAULT VERSUS FAILURE	139	(1)
5.6 Fault Tree Evaluations	139	(16)
MINIMAL CUT SETS	140	(1)
QUALITATIVE RANKING	140	(3)
COMMON CAUSE FAILURES	143	(1)
PROBABILITIES	144	(5)
QUANTITATIVE RANKING	149	(1)
CROSS-LINKED SYSTEMS	150	(1)
M OUT OF N PARALLEL SYSTEM	151	(4)
References	155	(1)
Problems	156	(4)
CHAPTER 6 CONSEQUENCE ANALYSIS	160	(48)
6.1 Neutrally Buoyant Gas Dispersion Models	161	(6)
PLUME MODEL	161	(5)
PUFF MODEL	166	(1)
6.2 Dense Gas Dispersion Models	167	(18)
CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUMPING	168	(2)
CRITERIA FOR SLUMPING	170	(1)
CONCENTRATION IN DENSE GAS DISPERSIONS	171	(2)
CONTINUOUS-RELEASE DENSE GAS CONCENTRATIONS	173	(1)
INSTANTANEOUS-RELEASE DENSE GAS CONCENTRATION	174	(2)
TRANSITION: DENSE GAS TO BUOYANT GAS DISPERSION	176	(9)
6.3 Damage Prediction with Probit Equations	185	(3)
6.4 Damage Due to Explosions	188	(7)
DAMAGE DUE TO OVERPRESSURES	188	(3)
MAXIMUM HORIZONTAL RANGE OF EXPLOSIONS	191	(1)
CONSEQUENCES OF FIREBALLS	192	(3)
6.5 Presentation of Consequence Results	195	(13)
WIND ROSE PLOT	198	(1)
EVENT TREES	198	(2)
INDIVIDUAL RISK CONTOURS	200	(1)
ANNUAL INDIVIDUAL RISK PROFILE	201	(1)
SOCIETAL RISK PROFILES	202	(1)
GENERAL DISCUSSION	203	(5)
CHAPTER 7 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT	208	(28)
7.1 Monitoring	209	(1)
PERSONAL MONITORING	209	(1)
AMBIENT MONITORING	209	(1)
EXPOSURE MODELING	209	(1)
INTERVIEWS	210	(1)
BACKGROUND SAMPLING	210	(1)
7.2 Data Analysis	210	(2)
VARIANCE	211	(1)
STUDENT t-TEST AND CONFIDENCE INTERVAL	211	(1)
7.3 Number of Samples	212	(4)
PRESPECIFIED MARGIN OF ERROR	212	(2)
NUMBER OF SAMPLES BASED ON PREVIOUS RESULTS	214	(2)
7.4 Sample Locations	216	(3)
7.5 Potential Exposures	219	(3)
SOIL AND GROUND WATER	220	(1)
AIR	220	(1)
BIOTA	221	(1)
DATA EVALUATION	221	(1)
TOXICITY SCREENING	221	(1)
7.6 Exposure Characterization	222	(2)
CHARACTERIZE EXPOSURE SETTING	223	(1)
IDENTIFY EXPOSURE PATHWAYS	223	(1)
QUANTIFICATION OF EXPOSURE	223	(1)
7.7 Chemical Intakes	224	(9)
INTAKE OF CHEMICALS VIA DRINKING WATER	225	(2)
INTAKE OF CHEMICALS VIA SOIL, SEDIMENT, AND DUST	227	(1)
DERMAL ABSORPTION OF SOIL, SEDIMENT, AND DUST	228	(1)
AIR INTAKES	229	(1)
FOOD INTAKES	229	(4)
References	233	(1)
Problems	234	(2)
CHAPTER 8 DOSE RESPONSE AND RISK CHARACTERIZATION	236	(19)
8.1 Noncarcinogenic Effects	236	(2)
CONCEPT OF THRESHOLD	237	(1)
DERIVATION OF AN RfD	237	(1)
8.2 Carcinogenic Effects	238	(3)
DERIVATION OF SLOPE FACTOR	238	(1)
DOSE RESPONSE	239	(2)
8.3 Adjustments for Administered versus Absorbed Dose	241	(1)
8.4 Noncarcinogenic and Carcinogenic Data	242	(1)
8.5 Risk Characterization	243	(10)
ORGANIZE RESULTS OF DOSE AND DOSE-RESPONSE STUDIES	244	(1)
QUANTIFY PATHWAY RISKS	244	(6)
COMBINE RISKS ACROSS PATHWAYS	250	(3)
Summary	253	(1)
References	253	(1)
Problems	254	(1)
CHAPTER 9 RADIATION RISK ASSESSMENT	255	(30)
9.1 Principal Types of Ionizing Radiation	255	(1)
ALPHA PARTICLES	255	(1)
BETA PARTICLES	256	(1)
POSITRONS	256	(1)
GAMMA RADIATION	256	(1)
NEUTRONS	256	(1)
9.2 Fundamentals	256	(8)
9.3 Exposure and Dose Assessment	264	(1)
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE EXPOSURE SETTING	265	(1)
IDENTIFICATION OF THE EXPOSURE PATHWAYS	265	(1)
9.4 Quantification of the Exposure	265	(7)
INGESTION WITH CONTAMINATED WATER	265	(2)
INTAKE OF RADIONUCLIDES WITH SOIL, SEDIMENT, AND DUST	267	(1)
AIR INTAKES	268	(1)
FOOD INTAKES	269	(2)
EXTERNAL INTAKES VIA AIR AND GROUND CONTAMINATION	271	(1)
9.5 Committed Dose-Equivalents per Intake	272	(2)
9.6 Calculated Doses	274	(2)
9.7 Risk Assessment	276	(7)
LIMITS	277	(1)
SLOPE FACTORS	278	(5)
References	283	(1)
Problems	283	(2)
CHAPTER 10 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT	285	(43)
10.1 Introduction	285	(1)
10.2 Definitions	286	(2)
10.3 Ecology Assessment Concepts	288	(5)
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS	289	(1)
CONTAMINANTS' EFFECT ON ECOSYSTEMS	290	(3)
10.4 Assessment Strategy	293	(28)
REVIEW EXISTING INFORMATION	293	(2)
INITIAL ASSESSMENT OF SITE	295	(1)
REVIEW ASSESSMENT METHODS	295	(1)
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS	295	(1)
TOXICITY TESTS	295	(7)
BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE	302	(1)
FIELD SURVEYS	303	(1)
AQUATIC SURVEYS	304	(2)
VEGETATION ASSESSMENT	306	(3)
TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES	309	(1)
TERRESTRIAL INVERTEBRATES	309	(2)
ASSESSMENT DESIGN	311	(7)
DATA ANALYSIS	318	(1)
RISK ASSESSMENT	319	(1)
REMEDIATION	320	(1)
References	321	(3)
Problems	324	(4)
CHAPTER 11 STRUCTURAL ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIPS	328	(42)
11.1 Introduction	328	(5)
DEFINITION OF SAR	328	(1)
CHEMICAL STRUCTURES	329	(1)
CHEMICAL SUBSTRUCTURES	329	(1)
PHYSIOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS	330	(1)
FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS	331	(1)
JUSTIFICATION FOR SAR MODELS	331	(2)
11.2 Mathematical Methods	333	(13)
DESCRIPTORS	333	(2)
SCALING	335	(1)
REGRESSION ANALYSIS	335	(2)
STEPWISE REGRESSION	337	(1)
DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS	337	(9)
11.3 Models	346	(20)
PARTITION COEFFICIENTS	346	(4)
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR	350	(5)
WATER SOLUBILITY	355	(1)
BACTERIAL EC(50)	355	(1)
RAT LD(50)	356	(5)
CANCER	361	(5)
11.4 Model Resources	366	(1)
References	366	(2)
Problems	368	(2)
CHAPTER 12 RISK MANAGEMENT	370	(12)
12.1 Introduction to Risk Management	370	(1)
12.2 Risk Management Model	371	(3)
OVERALL APPROACH	371	(1)
RISK MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGY	372	(1)
RISK MATRIX	372	(2)
PROJECT PRIORITIES	374	(1)
12.3 Risk Matrix	374	(3)
SITE PERSONNEL SAFETY	375	(1)
PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY	375	(1)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION	375	(1)
REGULATORY COMPLIANCE	375	(1)
BUSINESS PERFORMANCE	376	(1)
GENERAL	376	(1)
12.4 Priorities	377	(1)
12.5 Summary-Risk Management	378	(1)
References	379	(1)
Problems	379	(3)
CHAPTER 13 MANAGING RISK	382	(21)
13.1 Time Management	382	(3)
WORK STYLES	382	(2)
PROCRASTINATION	384	(1)
PERFECTIONISM	384	(1)
LACK OF PLANNING	385	(1)
13.2 Change Management	385	(4)
PARTICIPATION	386	(1)
APPROPRIATE HUMAN RELATIONS	387	(1)
CHANGE PROCESS	388	(1)
13.3 Problem Solving	389	(3)
AWARENESS	389	(1)
ANALYSIS	389	(1)
EVALUATION AND GENERATION	389	(3)
13.4 Communication	392	(5)
BASIC QUALITIES	392	(1)
STRUCTURE	393	(1)
EDITING RULES	394	(2)
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION	396	(1)
13.5 Risk Communication	397	(3)
PROBLEMS WITH RISK COMMUNICATION	397	(1)
RULES FOR IMPROVING RISK COMMUNICATION	398	(2)
References	400	(1)
Problems	401	(2)
CHAPTER 14 REGULATIONS	403	(33)
14.1 Air Emissions	403	(15)
TITLE I: NONATTAINMENT	404	(1)
TITLE III: HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS	405	(2)
TITLE IV: ACID RAIN	407	(1)
TITLE V: PERMITS	408	(1)
TITLE VI: STRATOSPHERIC OZONE PROTECTION	408	(1)
TITLE VII: ENFORCEMENT	409	(1)
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR VOC EMISSIONS FROM SOCMI PROCESSES	409	(3)
ESTIMATING EMISSIONS FROM EQUIPMENT LEAKS	412	(6)
14.2 Waste Water	418	(5)
OIL SPILL PREVENTION CONTROL AND COUNTERMEASURES CONTROL (SPCC)	418	(2)
NATIONAL POLLUTANT DISCHARGE ELIMINATION SYSTEM (NPDES) PROGRAM	420	(3)
14.3 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Programs (EPCRA)	423	(2)
EMERGENCY PLANNING	423	(1)
EMERGENCY RELEASE NOTIFICATION	423	(1)
REPORTING REQUIREMENTS	424	(1)
14.4 Hazardous Wastes (RCRA)	425	(6)
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS WASTES	425	(1)
WASTE CLASSIFICATION	426	(1)
STORING HAZARDOUS WASTES	426	(2)
TREATMENT STANDARDS	428	(3)
LAB PACKS	431	(1)
14.5 Toxic Substances and Control Act (TSCA)	431	(1)
Summary	432	(1)
Additional Reference	432	(1)
References	433	(1)
Problems	434	(2)
CHAPTER 15 ISO 14000	436	(21)
15.1 Introduction	437	(5)
15.2 Organization Evaluation	442	(8)
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM	443	(4)
ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING	447	(2)
ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION	449	(1)
15.3 Product and Process Evaluation	450	(4)
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT	450	(1)
ENVIRONMENTAL LABELING	451	(2)
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS IN PRODUCT STANDARDS	453	(1)
15.4 ISO 14000 Registration	454	(1)
ADVANTAGES OF REGISTRATION	455	(1)
References	455	(1)
Problems	456	(1)
APPENDIX I LIST OF HIGHLY HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS, TOXICS, AND REACTIVES	457	(3)
APPENDIX IIa REGULATED TOXIC SUBSTANCES (RMP)	460	(2)
APPENDIX IIb REGULATED FLAMMABLE SUBSTANCES (RMP)	462	(2)
APPENDIX IIc REGULATED EXPLOSIVES (MATERIALS THAT DETONATE, DIV 1.1)	464	(2)
APPENDIX III RESOURCES FOR CHEMICAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY	466	(3)
APPENDIX IV UNIT CONVERSION CONSTANTS	469	(2)
APPENDIX V FAILURE RATE DATA	471	(1)
APPENDIX VI t VALUES FOR PROBABILITIES AT DIFFERENT DEGREES OF FREEDOM	472	(1)
APPENDIX VIIa HEALTH EFFECTS: CARCINOGENICITY	473	(13)
APPENDIX VIIb HEALTH EFFECTS: RADIONUCLIDE CARCINOGENICITY	486	(4)
APPENDIX VIIc HEALTH EFFECTS: SUBCHRONIC AND CHRONIC TOXICITY	490	(32)
APPENDIX VIIIa COMMITTED DOSE-EQUIVALENT PER UNIT INTAKE BY INHALATION (MREM CI)	522	(3)
APPENDIX VIIIb COMMITTED DOSE-EQUIVALENT PER UNIT INTAKE BY INGESTION (MREM CI)	525	(3)
APPENDIX VIIIc DOSE-EQUIVALENT RATE PER UNIT AIR CONCENTRATION VIA IMMERSION (MREM YR PER CI M(3)) FOR AIR IMMERSION	528	(3)
APPENDIX VIIId DOSE-EQUIVALENT RATE PER UNIT ACTIVITY (MREM YR PER CI M(2)) ON THE GROUND SURFACE	531	(3)
APPENDIX IX HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS (HAPs)	534	(2)
APPENDIX X ORGANIC HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS (HONs)	536	(3)
APPENDIX XI OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES	539	(2)
APPENDIX XII SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY (SOCMI) CHEMICALS AFFECTED BY SUBPART RRR	541	(4)
APPENDIX XIII SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY (SOCMI) CHEMICALS AFFECTED BY SUBPART VV (VOC)	545	(5)
APPENDIX XIV TOXIC CHEMICAL POLLUTANTS FOR NPDES PERMIT	550	(3)
APPENDIX XV HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND THEIR REPORTABLE QUANTITIES (EPCRA 311)	553	(6)
APPENDIX XVI EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES	559	(8)
APPENDIX XVII CERCLA HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES	567	(26)
APPENDIX XVIII TOXIC CHEMICALS FOR EPCRA 313 REPORTING	593	(11)
APPENDIX XIX RCRA HAZARDOUS WASTES FROM NONSPECIFIC SOURCES	604	(4)
APPENDIX XX RCRA HAZARDOUS WASTES FROM SPECIFIC SOURCES	608	(6)
APPENDIX XXI RCRA ACUTELY HAZARDOUS WASTE	614	(5)
APPENDIX XXII RCRA TOXIC WASTES	619	(11)
APPENDIX XXIII RCRA HAZARDOUS CONSTITUENTS	630	(13)
APPENDIX XXIV RCRA RESTRICTED WASTE LANDFILL REQUIREMENTS	643	(9)
APPENDIX XXV RCRA TECHNOLOGY-BASED STANDARDS FOR SPECIFIC EPA WASTE CODES	652	(16)
INDEX	668

Excerpts

Preface This textbook is primarily designed for teaching and applying the fundamentals of health and environmental risk analysis. It can be used as an industrial reference book, a text for a senior-level undergraduate course, or a text for a graduate course on risk analysis. Anyone interested in understanding, mitigating, or eliminating the risks associated with handling chemicals will find this book helpful. Users may include students as well as personnel from government agencies, city governments, communities, chemical plants, and storage or transportation facilities. This book is a companion text to D. A. Crowl and J. F. Louvar, Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990), an introductory text on chemical process safety. It will serve as a significant extension of Crowl and Louvar's concepts and practices, with emphasis on risk analysis. Risk analyzers currently use many resources scattered throughout several books, periodicals, and government documents. Often a reference work covers only a simple individual topic in great detail, making risk analysis difficult to comprehend as a single subject. The purpose of this text is to condense the most important technical principles concerning risk analysis by compiling subsets of the information deemed essential for industrial and university use. It is hoped that emphasis on the essentials will help students and practicing scientists and engineers understand the concepts and apply them appropriately. Risk analysis is especially important today because governments, companies, and communities are becoming more aware of their environmental and safety responsibilities. At the same time, rising costs of regulatory compliance and dwindling natural resources require us to (a) differentiate degrees of risk, (b) identify the most effective risk reduction alternatives, and (c) manage the communication process to facilitate appropriate and timely action. Without realistic relative risk analyses, governments, communities, and practitioners will inappropriately treat all risks equally. Regulations Environmental and safety regulations affect processing plants, universities, laboratories, government facilities, city water purification plants, auto repair shops, and even the local dry cleaners. The process of compliance with environmental regulations can be time consuming and costly and may cause many businesses to move their operations to countries with fewer regulatory constraints. While moving business out of the country supposedly reduces local risk, it will also reduce employment-and unemployment beats out steeplejacking for the riskiest occupation. One major intent of this book is to help regulators and regulatees effectively comply with these regulations. With the world's population increasing by one billion every ten years, the effectiveness of the chemical industry, for example, is especially important because it has a major influence on the availability of critical products. The chemical industry has a responsibility to work with national governments and local communities to effectively expand its production of agricultural chemicals to increase the production of food, pharmaceutical products to cure illnesses, surfactants to improve personal hygiene and reduce the possibility of spreading disease, and polymers to provide materials for clothing and shelter. Reduced Risks to Humans and the Environment On the other hand, it is clear that we must continue to identify and control chemicals in the environment that may cause premature deaths due to cancer. Industry must also identify and control toxic chemical contamination that may cause serious and permanent damage to our natural resources: forests, streams, rivers, lakes, and wetlands. Historic comparisons demons