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Part 1: Concepts of College Writing1 Academic Goals and Expectations
Know that writing is more than avoiding grammar errors Don’t make writing harder than it is Take advantage of your instructor’s office hour Use the writing center Think of writing as a process Think of yourself as a writer VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Use the Writing Center
2 Defining Genres and Purposes
Appreciate what genres are Understand why writers rely on genres Using genres to meet assignments Understand subgenres Genres and subgenres in How to Write Anything
3 Imagining Audiences
Consider what your audiences expect Consider who else your readers might be Make adjustments for your readers Define who your readers should be
4 Understanding Style and Design
Appreciate the choices you have Strive for clarity in academic writing Use language that respects audiences Appreciate that design is part of style
Part 2: Key Academic Genres5 Narratives
Defining the genre
Make a point — usually Tell a story Offer details Focus on people LITERACY NARRATIVE: Laura Grisham, Literacy Narrative
Claiming a topic
Brainstorm Choose a manageable subject Choose a consequential subject Choose a puzzling subject
Imagining your audience
Gathering materials Talk to the people involved Trust your experiences Consult personal documents
Organizing ideas
Consider a conventional structure Build toward a climax Give your readers directions Use headings and transitions
Choosing a style and design
Don’t hesitate to use first person Use figures of speech, such as similes, metaphors, and analogies, to make memorable comparisons In choosing verbs, favor active rather than passive voice Keep the language simple
Examining models
ARGUMENTATIVE NARRATIVE: Leah Vann, Bald Is NOT Beautiful PERSONAL STATEMENT: Michael Villaverde, Application Essay for Academic Service Partnership Foundation Internship Assignments
6 Reports
Present information Find reliable sources Aim for objectivity Present information clearly FEATURE STORY: Cat Vasko, Grocery Store Economics: Why Are Rotisserie Chickens So Cheap?
Answer questions Review what is already known about a subject Report new knowledge
Suppose you are the expert Suppose you are the novice Suppose you are the peer
Gathering materials
Base reports on the best available sources Base reports on diverse sources Fact-check your report
Organize by date, time, or sequence Organize by magnitude or order of importance Organize by division Organize by classification Organize by position, location, or space Organize by definition Organize by comparison/contrast Organize by thesis statement
Choosing style and design
Present the facts cleanly Keep out of it Avoid connotative language Pay attention to elements of design
ACADEMIC RESEARCH REPORT: Susan Wilcox, Marathons for Women *INFOGRAPHIC: Australian Academy of Science, Noise Pollution and Animals Assignments
7 Explanations
Don’t jump to conclusions Appreciate your limits Offer sufficient evidence for claims *CAUSAL ANALYSIS: Kendall Powell, What Electronic Games Can Teach Us
Look again at a subject you know well Look for an issue new to you Examine a local issue Choose a challenging subject Tackle an issue that seems settled
Create an audience Write to an existing audience
Understand necessary causes Understand sufficient causes Understand precipitating causes Understand proximate causes Understand remote causes Understand reciprocal causes
Explain why something happened Explain the consequences of a phenomenon Suggest an alternative explanation Explain a chain of causes
Consider a middle style Use appropriate supporting media
RESEARCH STUDY: Alysha Behn, Where Have All the Women Gone? *FLOW DIAGRAM: U.S. Department of Transportation, Connected Vehicles Assignments
8 Arguments
Offer levelheaded and disputable claims Offer good reasons to support a claim Understand opposing claims and points of view Frame arguments powerfully—and not in words only *ARGUMENT TO ADVANCE A THESIS: Seth Templeton, An Open Letter to a Protester from a Baltimore County Police Officer
State a preliminary claim, if only for yourself Qualify your claim to make it reasonable Examine your core assumptions
Consider and control your ethos Consider self-imposed limits Consider the worlds of your readers
List your reasons Assemble your hard evidence Cull the best quotations Find counterarguments Consider emotional appeals
Make a point or build toward one Spell out what’s at stake Address counterpoints when necessary, not in a separate section Save your best arguments for the end
Invite readers with a strong opening Write vibrant sentences Ask rhetorical questions Use images and design to make a point
Examining a model
REFUTATION ARGUMENT: Ryan Young, Self-Driving Cars: A Reality Check Assignments
9 Evaluations
Explain your mission Establish and defend criteria Offer convincing evidence Offer worthwhile advice CRITICAL ASSESSMENT: Megan McArdle, Serena Williams Is Not the Best Tennis Player
Evaluate a subject you know well Evaluate a subject you need to investigate Evaluate a subject you’d like to know more about Evaluate a subject that’s been on your mind
Write for experts Write for a general audience Write for novices
Decide on your criteria Look for hard criteria Argue for criteria that can’t be measured Stand by your values Gather your evidence
Choose a simple structure when your criteria and categories are predictable Choose a focal point Compare and contrast
Use a high or formal style Use a middle style Use a low style Present evaluations visually
*MOVIE REVIEW: Roger Ebert, Review of Do The Right Thing SOCIAL SATIRE/VISUAL ARGUMENT: Andy Singer, Intravenous Smartphones Assignments
10 Proposals
Define a problem Make specific recommendations Target the proposal Consider plausible alternatives Make realistic recommendations TRIAL BALLOON: Glenn Harlan Reynolds, To Reduce Inequality, Abolish Ivy League
Look for a genuine issue Look for a challenging problem Look for a soluble problem Look for a local issue
Understanding your audience
Appeal to people who can make a difference Rally people who represent public opinion
Define the problem Examine prior solutions Outline a proposal Defend the proposal Figure out how to implement the proposal
Organizing ideas Choosing style and design
Use a formal style Use a middle style, when appropriate Pay attention to elements of design
MANIFESTO: Ellen Airhart, Join the Revolution: Eat More Bugs VISUAL PROPOSAL: Jen Sorensen, Pod People Assignments
11 Literary Analyses
Begin with a close reading Make a claim or an observation Use texts for evidence Present literature in context Draw on previous research CULTURAL REFLECTION: Dana Gioia, Why Literature Matters: Good Books Help Make a Civil Society
Choose a text, genre, or literary/cultural perspective you connect with Choose a topic you want to learn more about Choose a text or topic you don’t understand
Clearly identify the author and works you are analyzing Define key terms Don’t aim to please professional critics
Examine the “text” closely Focus on the text itself Focus on meanings, themes, and interpretations Focus on authorship and history Focus on genre Focus on influences Focus on social connections Find good sources
Imagine a structure Work on your opening
Use a formal style for most assignments Use a middle style for informal or literacy narratives Follow the conventions of academic literary analysis Cite plays correctly Explore alternative media
CLOSE READING: Kanaka Sathasivan, Insanity: Two Women ARTS/CULTURE ANALYSIS: Soup Martinez, Review of Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger Assignments
12 Rhetorical Analyses
Take words and images seriously Spend time with texts Pay attention to audiences Mine texts and rhetorical occasions for evidence *RHETORICAL ANALYSIS: Danielle Kurtzleben, When Republicans Attack “Cancel Culture,” What Does It Mean?
Make a difference Choose a text you can work with Choose a text you can learn more about Choose a text with handles Choose a text you know how to analyze
Imagining your audience Gathering materials
Consider the ethos of the author Consider how a writer plays to emotions Consider how well reasoned a text is
Consider a high style Consider a middle style Make the text accessible to readers
*DISCOURSE/CRITICAL ANALYSIS: Bari Weiss, Resignation Letter ANALYSIS OF AN ARGUMENT: Matthew James Nance, A Mockery of Justice Assignments
Part 3: Special College and Workplace Genres13 Essay Examinations
Understanding essay exams
Anticipate the types of questions to be asked Read exam questions carefully Sketch out a plan for your essay(s) Organize your answers strategically Offer strong evidence for your claims Come to a conclusion Keep the tone serious Keep your eye on the clock
Getting the details right
Use topic sentences and transitions Do a quick check of grammar, mechanics, and spelling Write legibly or print
ESSAY EXAMINATION: Wade Lamb, Essay for Classical Modern Rhetoric
14 Annotated Bibliographies
Understanding bibliographies
Begin with an accurate record of research materials Record every detail you will need to create an accurate citation Use annotations to assess the significance or quality of the work Use annotations to explain the role a work plays in your research Follow a single documentation style Record the information on your sources accurately Keep summaries and assessments brief Follow the directions carefully
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: Annotated Bibliography from a Topic Proposal (Excerpt)
15 Syntheses
Understanding synthesis papers
Pay close attention to the actual assignment Identify reputable sources on your subject Summarize and paraphrase the works you have identified Look for connections between your sources Provide a context for your topic Tell a story Acknowledge disagreements and rebuttals Cite materials that both support and challenge your own thesis Pay attention to language Be sure to document your sources
SYNTHESIS PAPER: Lauren Chiu, Time to Adapt?
16 Oral Presentations
Understanding oral reports
Choose your subject well Know your stuff Highlight arresting details Organize your presentation Keep your audience on track Stay connected to your listeners Use your voice and body Adapt your material to the time available Practice your talk Prep for the occasion
Be certain you need presentation software Use slides to introduce points, not cover them Use a simple and consistent design Consider alternatives to slide-based presentations Learn the rhetoric of poster sessions
ORAL PRESENTATION: PowerPoint Presentation on Giving an Oral Report
17 Résumés
Understanding résumés
Gather the necessary information Decide on appropriate categories Arrange the information within categories strategically Design pages that are easy to read
Proofread every line in the résumé several times Don’t leave unexplained gaps in your education or work career Be consistent and efficient Protect your personal data Look for help
RÉSUMÉ: Taylor Rowane
18 Emails and Business Letters
Understanding email
Assess the situation Explain your purpose clearly and logically Tell readers what you want or expect from them Write for intended audiences Write for unintended audiences too Keep messages brief Distribute your messages sensibly
Getting the details right: email
Use informative subject lines Arrange your text sensibly Include an appropriate signature Use standard grammar Check the recipient list before you hit send Don’t be a pain
Getting the details right: conventional business letters
Use consistent margins and spacing for print documents Finesse the greeting Distribute paper copies of a letter, if necessary Photocopy any paper letter as a record Don’t forget any promised enclosures Fold a paper business letter correctly and send it in a suitable
EMAIL: Typical e-mail query COVER LETTER: Typical cover letter
19 Writing Portfolios
Understanding writing portfolios
Take charge of the portfolio assignment Appreciate the audiences for a portfolio Present authentic materials Take reflections seriously
Polish your portfolio Understand the portfolio activities Give honest feedback to classmates
WRITING PORTFOLIO: Desiree Lopez, Midterm Reflection on an Internship Course
Part 4: A Writer’s Routines20 Smart Reading
Recall the basics Read to deepen what you already know Read above your level of knowledge Read what makes you uncomfortable Read against the grain Read slowly Annotate what you read
21 Critical Thinking
Think in terms of claims and reasons Think in terms of premises and assumptions Think in terms of evidence Anticipate objections Avoid logical fallacies
22 Claiming Topics
Follow routines that support invention Browse course materials Search online Build from lists Map your ideas Try freewriting Use memory prompts VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Browse for Ideas
23 Gathering Materials
Gather information from reputable and appropriate sources Use the research tools your school provides Look for diverse sources representing a respected range of opinion Pay attention to dates Use an adequate number of sources Be sure to collect and document your sources systematically
24 Shaping a Thesis
Compose a complete sentence Make a significant claim or assertion Write a declarative sentence, not a question Expect your thesis to mature Introduce a thesis early in a project Or state a thesis late in a project Write a thesis to fit your audience and purpose
25 Developing Ideas
Use description to set a scene Use division to divide a subject Use classification to sort objects or ideas by consistent principles Use definition to clarify meaning Use comparison and contrast to show similarity and difference
26 Organizing Ideas
Examine model documents Sketch out a plan or sequence Try reverse outlining Provide cues or signals for readers Deliver on your commitments Appreciate the value in varying structure
27 Outlining
Begin with a scratch outline Look for relationships Subordinate ideas Prepare a complete outline if required
28 Revising, Editing, and Proofreading
Revise to see the big picture Edit to make the paper flow Proofread to get the details right VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Revise Your Work
29 Peer Reviewing
Peer edit the same way you revise your own work Be specific in identifying problems or opportunities Offer suggestions for improvement Praise what is genuinely good in the paper Use proofreading symbols Keep comments tactful and confidential VISUAL TUTORIAL: How to Insert a Comment in a Word Document
30 Overcoming Writer’s Block
Break the project into parts Set manageable goals Create a calendar Limit distractions Do the parts you like first Write a zero draft Reward yourself
Part 5: Style 31 Levels of Style
Use high style for formal, scientific, and scholarly writing Use middle style for personal, argumentative, and some academic writing Use a low style for personal, informal, and even playful writing
32 Clear and Vigorous Writing
Build sentences around specific and tangible subjects and objects Look for opportunities to use specific nouns and noun phrases rather than general ones Avoid sprawling phrases Avoid sentences with long windups Favor simple, active verbs Avoid strings of prepositional phrases Don’t repeat key words close together Avoid doublings Turn clauses into more direct modifiers Cut introductory expressions such as it is and there is/are when you can Vary your sentence lengths and structures Read aloud what you have written Cut a first draft by 25 percent—or more
33 Inclusive Writing
Avoid expressions that stereotype genders or sexual orientation Avoid expressions that stereotype races, ethnic groups, or religious groups Handle pronouns appropriately Treat all people with respect Avoid sensational language
34
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