Human Rights in Criminal Proceedings

by Trechsel, Stefan; Summers, Sarah J.

• ISBN13: 9780198299363
• ISBN10: 0198299362
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-06-16
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

This book examines the rights of accused persons in criminal proceedings. The case-law of the international bodies dealing with this issue is presented and critically examined by an author who has contributed to its creation for almost a quarter of a century. He places particular emphasis on the European Court and Commission of Human Rights.

Author Biography

Stefan Trechsel is Professor of Criminal Law and Procedure at the University of Zurich, and a former President of the European Commission of Human Rights.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements	vii
Tables of Cases	xxxv
I. Judgments and Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights	xxxv
II. Decisions of the European Commission of Human Rights-Alphabetical	lxxiv
III. Decisions of the European Commission of Human Rights-Numerical	lxxxviii
IV. Article 31 Reports of the European Commission on Human Rights-Alphabetical	xcix
V. Decisions and Views of the Human Rights Committee under Article 28 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)	cii
VI. Judgments of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights	cv
VII. Decisions of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights	cvi
List of Abbreviations	cvii
Part One Introduction
Chapter 1. About this Book
I. The Subject	3	(5)
A. Definitions	3	(3)
1. 'Human Rights'	3	(2)
2. Criminal Proceedings	5	(1)
3. Limitations, Exclusions	5	(13)
(a) The Procedures for the Implementation of Human Rights	5	(1)
(b) The International Criminal Court(s)	6	(1)
(c) Criminal Proceedings against Children and Juveniles	6	(1)
(d) Domestic Case-law	6	(1)
B. The Importance of the Subject	6	(2)
II. The Perspectives	8	(4)
A. The Geographical Perspective	9	(1)
B. The Legal Perspective	9	(1)
C. The 'Political' Perspective	10	(1)
D. The 'Scientific' Perspective	11	(1)
III. The Structure of the Book	12	(1)
Chapter 2. The Scope of Application of the Right to a Fair Trial in Criminal Matters
I. Introduction	13	(1)
A. The Texts	13	(1)
B. Three Aspects Concerning the Scope of the Provision	13	(1)
II. The Notion of 'Criminal'	14	(17)
A. General Observations	14	(1)
B. The Autonomous Notion of the Term 'Criminal Charge'	14	(2)
C. The Three Criteria First Established in Engel	16	(2)
D. The Substance of the Three Criteria	18	(10)
1. The Classification of the Offence under National Law	18	(1)
2. The Nature of the Offence	19	(3)
(a) Not to be Confused with the Nature of Proceedings	19	(1)
(b) General Considerations	19	(1)
(c) The Nature of Disciplinary Charges	20	(1)
(d) Offences of a 'Mixed Character'	21	(1)
3. The Nature and Degree of Severity of the Sanction Incurred	22	(4)
(a) Deprivation of Liberty	22	(1)
(b) Pecuniary Sanctions	23	(2)
(c) Other Sanctions	25	(1)
(d) Actual, Probable, or Possible Severity of the Sanction?	26	(1)
4. The Scope of the Sanction	26	(1)
5. The Relationship Between the Different Criteria	27	(1)
E. Disciplinary Matters as 'Civil Rights and Obligations'	28	(1)
F. Critical Appraisal of the Case-law of the Court	29	(2)
III. The Notion of 'Charge'	31	(5)
A. General Observations	31	(1)
B. The Term 'Charge' as an Autonomous Notion	32	(1)
C. Procedural Steps to which Article 6 Applies	32	(1)
D. Procedural Steps to which Article 6 Does Not Apply	33	(3)
1. Habeus Corpus Proceedings	33	(1)
2. Confiscation Orders	34	(1)
3. Immediate Confiscation of a Driving Licence	35	(1)
4. Proceedings in Relation to a Retrial	36	(1)
5. Extradition Proceedings	36	(1)
6. Proceedings for Challenging the Impartiality of a Judge	36	(1)
IV. Rights of the Victim	36	(9)
A. The Starting Point	36	(1)
B. Inconsistencies	37	(1)
C. The Case-law Prior to Perez v. France	38	(2)
D. The Judgment in Perez v. France	40	(1)
E. A Critical Appraisal	41	(4)
Part Two The General Fair Trial Guarantees
Chapter 3. The Right to an Independent and Impartial Tribunal
I. Introduction	45	(5)
A. The Texts	45	(1)
B. The Origins of the Guarantee	45	(1)
C. The Importance of the Right to an Independent and Impartial Tribunal	46	(1)
D. The Definition of 'Tribunal'	47	(1)
E. The References to a Judge, a Tribunal, or a Court in the Convention	48	(1)
F. The Relationship Between the Requirements of 'Independence', 'Impartiality', and 'Established by Law'	49	(1)
II. A Tribunal Established by Law	50	(3)
III. Independence	53	(8)
A. The Manner of Appointment	54	(1)
B. The Term of Office	55	(1)
C. Safeguards Against Outside Pressure	55	(1)
D. The Appearance of Independence	56	(1)
E. Additional Aspects of Independence	57	(4)
1. The Authority of the Judgment	57	(1)
2. The Autonomy of the Tribunal	58	(1)
3. Civil Servants as Members of a Tribunal	59	(1)
4. Military Judges Sitting in an Ordinary Court	60	(1)
IV. Impartiality	61	(19)
A. Definition	61	(1)
B. The Objective and the Subjective Approach	61	(2)
C. Lack of Impartiality Because of Personal Bias	63	(3)
D. Lack of Impartiality Under the Objective Test	66	(15)
1. Lack of Impartiality Due to Prior Involvement of the Judge in the Same Case	66	(12)
(a) As a Prosecutor	66	(2)
(b) As a Member of the Police	68	(1)
(c) As an Investigator	69	(3)
(d) As Member of a Body Responsible for Preparing the Indictment	72	(2)
(e) Having Taken One or More Decisions Regarding the Defendant's Detention	74	(1)
(f) As a Judge on the Merits	75	(1)
(g) As a Member of the Conseil d'Etat which had Given an Opinion on the Regulations at Issue	76	(1)
(h) In a Combination of Multiple Functions	77	(1)
(i) Conclusion	78	(1)
2. Lack of Impartiality Due to an Affiliation to One of the Parties	78	(1)
3. Procedural Issues	79	(1)
V. Conclusion	80	(1)
Chapter 4. The General Right to a Fair Trial
I. Introduction	81	(8)
A. The Texts	81	(1)
B. The Origins	81	(1)
C. Importance and Purpose	82	(2)
D. The Scope of the Right to a Fair Trial	84	(2)
E. The Relationship Between the General Rule and the Specific Rights: Evaluation of the Proceedings 'As a Whole'	86	(3)
II. The Right to Adversarial Proceedings	89	(5)
A. The Principle and its Meaning	89	(1)
B. The Definition	90	(1)
C. The Characteristics of the Guarantee	90	(1)
D. The Case-law	91	(3)
1. Submissions of the Procurator General to Supreme Jurisdictions	91	(1)
2. The Duty to Disclose Evidence	92	(5)
(a) Material Withheld by the Prosecuting Authority	92	(2)
(b) Duty of the Court to Disclose	94	(1)
III. The Principle of Equality of Arms	94	(8)
A. The Principle	94	(2)
B. The Definition	96	(1)
C. Aspects of Equality	97	(2)
1. The Relativity of Equality	97	(1)
2. The Importance of the Presence of the Prosecution at the Hearing	98	(1)
3. The Abstract Value of Equality	98	(1)
D. The Case-law	99	(3)
1. The Presence of a Prosecutor at the Deliberations of the Court	99	(1)
2. Privileged Information for the Prosecution	100	(2)
(a) Failure to Inform the Appellant of the Date of the Hearing before the French cour de cassation	101	(1)
(b) Communication of the Rapporteur's Draft to the Prosecution, but Not to the Defence	102	(1)
IV. The Right to a Reasoned Judgment	102	(8)
A. The Meaning and Function of the Right to a Reasoned Judgment	102	(4)
1. Reasons of a Functional Orientation	103	(1)
2. Reasons of Legal Theory	103	(1)
3. Reasons of Acceptability	104	(1)
4. Reasons of Transparency	104	(1)
5. The Right to a Reasoned Decision as an Aspect of the Right to be Heard	104	(2)
B. The Standards of the Reasoning	106	(1)
C. Limits to the Requirement that Reasons be Given	107	(1)
1. The Jury Trial	107	(1)
2. Appeal Judgments	108	(1)
D. The Case-law	108	(2)
V. Other Aspects of Fairness	110	(7)
A. Nullum Judicium Sine Lege	110	(1)
B. Entrapment	111	(2)
C. Compulsion to Accept a 'Settlement'	113	(1)
D. Interference by a Non-judicial Authority	114	(1)
E. Miscellaneous Elements of Unfairness	114	(3)
1. Legal Certainty	114	(1)
2. Respect for Judgments	115	(1)
3. Pro Memoria	116	(1)
Chapter 5. The Right to a Public Hearing
I. Introduction	117	(9)
A. The Texts	117	(2)
B. The Origins of the Guarantee	119	(1)
C. The Purpose of the Guarantee of a Public Trial	119	(5)
1. The Case-law	119	(2)
2. Weakness of the Court's View	121	(1)
3. Individual Right or Institutional Guarantee?	121	(3)
4. The Obligation to Pronounce the Judgment Publicly	124	(1)
D. The Possibility of Waiving the Right to a Public Trial	124	(1)
E. A Right to a Closed Hearing?	125	(1)
II. The Substance of the Right to a Public Hearing	126	(3)
A. Immediate Publicity	126	(2)
B. The Role of the Media	128	(1)
C. The Substance of the Public Hearing	128	(1)
III. Limitations and Exceptions	129	(2)
A. Implied Limitations?	129	(1)
B. The Limitations Set Out in the Text	130	(1)
C. Appeal Proceedings	131	(1)
D. Cases Where Violations Were Found	131	(1)
IV. 'Judgment Shall be Pronounced Publicly'	131	(3)
Chapter 6. The Right to be Tried Within a Reasonable Time
I. Introduction	134	(3)
A. The Texts	134	(1)
B. The Origins of the Guarantee	135	(1)
C. The Purpose of the Guarantee	135	(1)
D. Length of Proceedings and Length of Detention on Remand	136	(1)
E. The Points to be Discussed	137	(1)
II. The Beginning of the Relevant Period	137	(3)
A. The 'Autonomous' Interpretation of the Term 'Charged'	137	(1)
B. The General Rule	138	(2)
C. Proceedings Commenced Before the Entry into Force of the Convention	140	(1)
III. The End of the Relevant Period	140	(1)
IV. The Assessment of the Period	141	(7)
A. The General Rule	141	(1)
B. The Conduct of the Applicant (and/or Counsel)	142	(2)
C. The Importance of the Proceedings for the Accused	144	(1)
D. The Complexity of the Case	144	(2)
E. The Conduct of the Domestic Authorities	146	(7)
1. The Principle	146	(1)
2. Ineffective Justifications	147	(1)
3. Effective Justifications	148	(1)
V. Compensation for the Excessive Length of Proceedings	148	(5)
Part Three The Specific Rights of the Defence
Chapter 7. The Right to be Presumed Innocent
I. Introduction	153	(14)
A. The Texts	153	(1)
B. The Origins of the Guarantee	153	(1)
C. General Characteristics of the Guarantee and some Basic Definitions	154	(9)
1. 'Charged with a Criminal Offence'	155	(1)
2. 'Presumed'	156	(1)
3. 'Innocent'	156	(5)
(a) Nullum Crimen Sine Culpa? The Issue of Mens Rea	157	(2)
(b) 'Innocent' or 'Not Liable to be Punished'?	159	(2)
4. 'Proved' Guilty	161	(1)
5. Proved Guilty 'According to Law'	162	(1)
D. The Two Distinct Aspects of the Presumption of Innocence	163	(1)
E. The Relationship Between the Presumption of Innocence and Other Aspects of the Right to a Fair Trial	164	(2)
1. The Presumption of Innocence and the Impartiality of the Judge	164	(1)
2. The Presumption of Innocence and the Right to a Fair Trial	165	(1)
3. The Presumption of Innocence and the Right to be Informed of the Charge	165	(1)
4. The Presumption of Innocence and the Privilege against Self-incrimination	166	(1)
5. The Presumption of Innocence in Civil Proceedings	166	(1)
F. The Specific Problems Arising with the Guarantee	166	(1)
II. The 'Outcome-related' Aspects of the Guarantee	167	(11)
A. The Burden of Proof	167	(7)
1. The Burden of Proof in the Proceedings	167	(1)
2. Reversal of the Burden of Proof by Legislation	168	(4)
(a) Legal Presumptions to the Detriment of the Accused	168	(1)
(i) Salabiaku and Similar Judgments	168	(1)
(ii) Assessment	170	(1)
(b) Criminal Liability for the Conduct of Others (Vicarious Liability)	171	(1)
(c) Prosecution of Legal Persons	171	(1)
3. Problems Related to Sentencing	172	(1)
4. The Revocation of a Suspended Sentence	173	(1)
B. The Evaluation of the Evidence	174	(4)
1. General Observations: The 'Fourth-instance' Issue	174	(1)
2. The Issue of Bias	174	(4)
(a) Judicial Bias	174	(1)
(b) Bias of Other Participants in the Proceedings	175	(1)
(i) The Prosecuting Authority	175	(1)
(ii) The Expert	175	(2)
(c) The Media	177	(1)
3. No Right of Access to Court in Order to Establish One's Innocence	178	(1)
III. The 'Reputation-related' Aspects of the Guarantee	178	(14)
A. Introduction	178	(1)
B. Statements During the Pre-trial Phase of the Proceedings	178	(1)
C. Measures of Coercion, in Particular Detention on Remand	179	(3)
1. The Principle	179	(1)
2. The Limits	180	(2)
(a) General Aspects	180	(1)
(b) The Nature of Detention on Remand	181	(1)
D. Violation of the Presumption of Innocence in Cases where the Proceedings have Ended in Some Way Other than by Conviction and Sentence	182	(7)
1. The Effect of an Acquittal on the Presumption of Innocence	182	(3)
2. The Effect of a Procedural Termination of Criminal Proceedings on the Presumption of Innocence	185	(3)
(a) Order to Pay Costs and Compensation to the Plaintiff	186	(1)
(b) The Refusal of Compensation	187	(1)
(c) The Affirmation of Continuing Suspicion	188	(1)
3. Statements Unrelated to Criminal Proceedings	188	(1)
E. Assessment	189	(3)
Chapter 8. The Right to be Informed of the Accusation
I. Introduction	192	(4)
A. The Texts	192	(1)
B. The Origins of the Guarantee	192	(1)
C. The Purpose of the Guarantee	193	(2)
1. The Functional Approach	193	(1)
2. The Absolutist Approach	193	(1)
3. The Case-law	194	(1)
4. Assessment	194	(1)
D. Two Aspects of the Guarantee	195	(1)
E. The Structure of the Guarantee	195	(1)
II. Elements of Substance	196	(9)
A. The Term 'Charge'/'Accusation'	196	(4)
1. The Case-law	196	(2)
2. The Opinions of Legal Scholars	198	(1)
3. Assessment	199	(1)
B. 'Nature and Cause' and 'Detail'	200	(3)
1. With Regard to the Facts	201	(1)
2. With Regard to the Law	201	(2)
C. A Right 'To Be Informed'	203	(2)
III. Elements of Form	205	(3)
A. Must the Information be Given in Writing?	205	(1)
B. The Language	206	(1)
C. 'Promptly'	206	(2)
Chapter 9. Adequate Time and Facilities
I. Introduction	208	(7)
A. The Texts	208	(1)
B. The Origins of the Guarantee	208	(1)
C. The Purpose and Importance of the Guarantee	209	(2)
D. The Relative Character of the Guarantee	211	(4)
1. The General Relativity	211	(2)
2. The Specific Relativity	213	(1)
3. The Diligence Required from the Defence	214	(1)
II. The Right to Adequate Time	215	(7)
A. The Purpose of the Guarantee	215	(1)
B. The Relation of the Guarantee to the Other Rights of the Defence	216	(2)
1. The Relationship of Article 6 § 1, the Right to Trial 'Within a Reasonable Time'	216	(1)
2. The Relationship to the Principle of 'Equality of Arms'	216	(1)
3. The Relationship to Article 6 § 3(a)	217	(1)
4. The Relationship to Article 6 § 3(c)	218	(1)
C. What Constitutes 'Adequate Time'?	218	(4)
1. The Relevant Period	218	(2)
2. The Assessment of What is 'Adequate'	220	(1)
3. Proposals	221	(1)
4. Accelerated Proceedings	221	(1)
III. The Right to Adequate Facilities	222	(20)
A. Access to the File	222	(14)
1. General Observations	222	(1)
2. Four Aspects of Access to the File	223	(5)
(a) Access to the File Under the Continental System	224	(1)
(b) Discovery Under the Common-law System	224	(1)
(c) Discovery of 'Hidden Material'	225	(2)
(d) Investigation by the Defence	227	(1)
3. The Modalities of Discovery and Access to the File	228	(8)
(a) The Object	228	(2)
(b) Who has Access to the File?	230	(1)
(c) When does the Right of Access Arise?	231	(4)
(d) Various Issues	235	(1)
B. Other Facilities	236	(2)
1. Access to Legal Materials	236	(1)
2. A Reasoned Judgment	236	(1)
3. Notification of Consular Rights	237	(1)
4. Access to Medical Examination	237	(1)
5. The Right to a Hearing	238	(1)
C. Exceptions	238	(4)
Chapter 10. The Right to Defend Oneself and to Have the Assistance of Counsel
I. Introduction	242	(9)
A. The Texts	242	(1)
B. The Origins of the Guarantee	243	(1)
C. The Structure of Article 6 § 3(c) of the ECHR	243	(8)
1. The Purpose of the Right to a Defence	244	(3)
(a) The Technical Aspect	245	(1)
(b) The Psychological Aspect	245	(1)
(c) The Humanitarian Aspect	246	(1)
(d) The Structural Aspect of the Right to a Defence	247	(1)
2. The Absolute Character of the Right to a Defence	247	(2)
(a) A Right without Any Restrictions?	247	(1)
(b) No Derogation in Times of War?	248	(1)
(c) Is a Violation Possible in the Absence of Prejudice?	248	(1)
(d) Is a Violation Possible if the Accused was Finally Acquitted?	248	(1)
3. The Scope of the Application of the Right to a Defence	249	(2)
(a) The Right to Legal Assistance Outside Criminal Proceedings	249	(1)
(i) The Right to Legal Assistance in Proceedings on 'Civil Rights and Obligations'	249	(1)
(ii) The Right to Legal Assistance in Habeas Corpus Proceedings	249	(1)
(b) The Right to Legal Assistance During Different Phases of the Proceedings	250	(1)
(i) Before the Trial	250	(1)
(ii) Proceedings on Appeal	251	(1)
II. The Right to Defend Oneself	251	(15)
A. The Right of the Accused to Act in His or Her Defence	251	(12)
1. The General Rule	251	(1)
2. The Right to be Present at the Hearing	252	(9)
(a) The General Principle	252	(1)
(b) Exceptions for Disciplinary Reasons	253	(1)
(c) Trial In Absentia	253	(1)
(i) Possibility of a Retrial	254	(1)
(ii) Conditions for a Trial In Absentia Without the Possibility of a Retrial	255	(1)
(iii) Waiver and its Limitations	255	(2)
(d) The Right to be Present at a Hearing on Appeal	257	(1)
(i) Whether there was a Full Hearing at First Instance	257	(1)
(ii) Whether there is a Full Re-examination of the Case	257	(1)
(iii) What was at Stake for the Applicant	258	(1)
(iv) Whether there was a Risk of Reformatio in Peius	258	(1)
(v) Whether the Prosecutor Attended the Hearing	258	(1)
(vi) Whether the Appeal is Limited to Questions of Law	258	(1)
(vii) Whether the Accused was Given a New Sentence	259	(1)
(viii) Leave-to-Appeal Proceedings	260	(1)
(ix) The Obligation on the Defence to Act Diligently	260	(1)
3. The Limitation to Lawful Defence Activities	261	(1)
4. Formalities Must be Respected	262	(1)
B. The Right of the Accused to 'Defend Himself in Person'	263	(3)
III. The Right to the Assistance of Counsel of One's Own Choosing	266	(4)
A. A 'Practically Absolute' Right	266	(1)
B. Limitations as to the Persons Eligible as Counsel	267	(1)
C. Limitations as to the Number of Counsel	268	(1)
D. Confiscation of Assets and the Right to Counsel of the Accused's Choosing	269	(1)
IV. The Right to Legal Aid	270	(8)
A. The Economic Prerequisite	271	(1)
B. The Interests of Justice	272	(4)
1. The Seriousness of the Offence and the Severity of the Punishment	273	(2)
2. The Complexity of the Case	275	(1)
3. The Particularities of the Proceeding	275	(1)
4. The Particularities of the Accused	276	(1)
C. The Choice of the Lawyer	276	(1)
D. 'Free'	277	(1)
V. The Right to Contact with Counsel	278	(8)
A. The Principle	278	(3)
B. Exceptions	281	(1)
C. The Right to Contact with Counsel During the Police Investigations	282	(4)
VI. The Right to the Effective Assistance of Counsel	286	(5)
A. The Quality of the Defence	286	(2)
B. Effective Assistance During Pre-trial Proceedings	288	(3)
Chapter 11. The Right to Test Witness Evidence
I. Introduction	291	(9)
A. The Texts	291	(1)
B. The Origins of the Guarantee	292	(1)
C. The Purpose of the Guarantee	292	(1)
D. The Character of the Guarantee	293	(6)
1. The Proximity to the Establishment of the Facts	293	(1)
2. The Relative Character of the Guarantee	294	(12)
(a) The Issue In Abstracto	294	(1)
(b) The Court's Jurisprudence	295	(1)
(c) The Relevance of the Statement as Evidence	296	(1)
(d) Assessment	297	(1)
(e) The Possibility of Waiver: Requirements of Diligence	298	(1)
E. The Model of Full Compliance with the Guarantee	299	(1)
F. The Problems Arising with the Guarantee	300	(1)
II. Defining the Term 'Witness'	300	(5)
A. The Autonomous Notion of 'Witness'	301	(1)
B. The Classical Notion of Witness	302	(1)
C. Parties as Witnesses	302	(1)
D. Informants as Witnesses	302	(1)
E. Expert Witnesses	303	(1)
F. Application of Article 6 § 3(d) to Evidence Other than that of Witnesses	304	(1)
III. The Right to Question Witnesses at Different Stages of the Proceedings	305	(4)
A. At the Trial	305	(1)
B. During Pre-trial Proceedings	306	(3)
1. The Witness is Only Questioned During the Investigation	307	(1)
2. The Right to Question a Witness During Pre-trial Proceedings	308	(1)
C. In Appeal Proceedings	309	(1)
IV. The Exercise of the Right	309	(3)
A. Who is Entitled to Exercise the Right to Question Witnesses?	309	(2)
1. Counsel and the Accused	309	(1)
2. The Accused Alone	310	(1)
3. Counsel Alone	310	(1)
B. How is the Right to be Exercised?	311	(1)
V. Limitations of the Right to Test Witness Evidence	312	(10)
A. General Observations	312	(2)
B. Typical Situations Justifying Exceptions	314	(8)
1. Absent Witnesses	314	(1)
2. The 'Precious' Witness	315	(1)
3. The Intimidated Witness	316	(4)
(a) The Justification for Anonymity	317	(1)
(b) The Methods for Counterbalancing Anonymity	318	(2)
4. The Vulnerable Witness	320	(2)
C. Hearsay Evidence	322	(1)
VI. The Right to Call Witnesses	322	(4)
A. The Particularities of this Right	323	(1)
B. The Discretion of the Presiding Judge	324	(1)
C. The Reluctance of the Strasbourg Court	324	(1)
D. The Further Development of the Case-law	325	(1)
VII. The Equality-of-arms Aspect	326	(1)
Chapter 12. The Right to the Free Assistance of an Interpreter
I. Introduction	327	(7)
A. The Texts	327	(1)
B. The Origins of the Guarantee	327	(1)
C. The Purpose of Article 6 § 3(e)	328	(3)
1. The Character and Purpose of the Right to an Interpreter	328	(2)
2. The Meaning and Purpose of the Right to the Free Assistance of an Interpreter	330	(1)
D. The 'Relative' and the 'Absolute' Character of the Guarantee	331	(1)
E. The Relationship of Article 6 § 3(e) to other Rights of the Defence	332	(2)
1. The Relationship to Article 5 § 2 and Article 6 § 3(a)	332	(1)
2. The Relationship to Article 6 § 3(c)	332	(1)
3. The Relationship to Article 6 § 3(d)	333	(1)
II. The Need for Interpretation	334	(2)
A. The Lack of Linguistic Proficiency	334	(1)
B. The Lack of Acoustic Abilities	335	(1)
III. The Modalities of the Right to an Interpreter	336	(4)
A. The Application at Various Stages of the Proceedings	336	(1)
B. The Application Ratione Materiae: The Objects of Interpretation and Translation	336	(3)
1. Interpretation at the Trial	336	(1)
2. Interpretation During the Pre-trial Proceedings	337	(1)
3. Translation of Documents	338	(1)
4. Communication with Counsel	338	(1)
C. The Qualifications of the Interpreter	339	(1)
Chapter 13. The Privilege Against Self-incrimination
I. Introduction	340	(10)
A. The Texts	340	(1)
B. Terminology	341	(1)
C. The Origins of the 'Privilege'	341	(1)
D. The Character of the Guarantee	342	(8)
1. Right to Silence and the Privilege Against Self-incrimination	342	(1)
2. Right to Silence and Freedom of Expression	342	(1)
3. Absolute or Relative Right?	343	(3)
4. Direct and Indirect Effects of the Guarantee	346	(1)
5. The Rationale of the Guarantee	347	(2)
(a) The Starting Point	347	(1)
(b) The Link to Outcome-related Justice	347	(1)
(c) The Presumption of Innocence	348	(1)
(d) Respecting the Will of the Accused	348	(1)
6. The Scope of the Guarantee	349	(1)
(a) Application Ratione Materiae	349	(1)
(b) Application Ratione Personae	349	(1)
II. The Direct Effect of the Privilege	350	(5)
A. The Right to Remain Silent	350	(3)
1. Protection Against Immediate Physical Pressure	350	(1)
2. Protection Against the Use of Deception	350	(2)
3. A Right to be Warned?	352	(1)
B. The Right Not to Hand Over Documents	353	(1)
1. The Judgment in Funke v. France	353	(1)
C. Exceptions	354	(1)
1. Non-testimonial Contributions	354	(1)
2. Disclosure of One's Identity	354	(1)
III. The Indirect Effect of the Privilege	355	(5)
A. Introduction	355	(1)
B. Adverse Inferences from Silence	356	(4)
1. John Murray v. United Kingdom	356	(2)
2. The Case-law after John Murray	358	(1)
3. Assessment	359	(1)
Chapter 14. The Right to Appeal
I. Introduction	360	(3)
A. The Texts	360	(1)
B. The Origins	360	(2)
C. The Purpose of the Right to Appeal	362	(1)
II. The Prerequisites for the Right to Appeal	363	(2)
A. The Term 'Criminal Offence' in the Right to Appeal	363	(1)
B. The Notion of 'Conviction' in the Right to Appeal	364	(1)
C. Conviction by a Tribunal	365	(1)
III. The Review	365	(3)
A. The Discretion Left to the Contracting States	365	(3)
B. The 'Higher Tribunal'	368	(1)
IV. The Exceptions	368	(4)
A. Petty Offences	368	(2)
B. The Highest Court Sitting at First Instance	370	(1)
C. Conviction on Appeal after Acquittal	371	(1)
Chapter 15. The Right to Compensation for Wrongful Conviction
I. The Texts	372	(1)
II. The Origins of the Guarantee	373	(1)
III. The Purpose and Significance of the Guarantee	374	(1)
IV. The Prerequisites of the Right to Compensation for Wrongful Conviction	375	(4)
A. Convicted of a Criminal Offence	375	(1)
B. A Conviction	375	(1)
C. The Conviction Must Have Been Final	375	(1)
D. The Punishment	376	(1)
E. The Execution of the Sentence	376	(1)
F. The Decision to Convict Must Have Been Set Aside	377	(1)
G. The Reversal Must be Based on New Facts	377	(1)
H. No Responsibility for Non-disclosure	378	(1)
I. The Establishment of Innocence	378	(1)
V. The Right to Compensation	379	(2)
A. The Substance of the Compensation	379	(1)
B. The Beneficiary of the Right to Compensation	379	(1)
C. According to the Law (or the Practice) of the State Concerned	380	(1)
Chapter 16. The Protection Against Double Jeopardy
I. Introduction	381	(2)
A. The Texts	381	(1)
B. The Origins of the Guarantee	382	(1)
II. The Aim and Purpose of the Guarantee	383	(1)
III. Ne Bis In Idem as an Element of the Right to a Fair Trial?	384	(1)
IV. The Scope of Application of the Guarantee	385	(3)
A. Territorial Application	385	(2)
B. The Scope of Application ratione materiae	387	(1)
V. The First Trial	388	(3)
A. Acquittal or Conviction	388	(1)
B. The 'Final Character' of the Decision	389	(1)
C. 'In Accordance with the Law and Penal Procedure of that State'	390	(1)
VI. The Second Trial	391	(1)
VII. Identical Offences	391	(8)
A. An Identical Aim	392	(1)
B. Same Person	392	(1)
C. Same Conduct	392	(2)
1. 'Natural' and 'Legal' Unity of Conduct	393	(1)
2. Conduct or Result?	393	(1)
D. The Same Offence	394	(1)
E. Is the Court's Case-law Consistent?	394	(6)
1. Gradinger and Oliveira	394	(2)
2. Consolidation of the Case-law	396	(1)
3. Understanding Criminal Law	396	(1)
4. Evaluation	397	(1)
5. Proposal	398	(1)
VIII. 'Punished Again'	399	(1)
IX. The Exceptions	400	(2)
A. New Facts	401	(1)
B. Procedural Defects	401	(1)
X. Absolute Character	402	(3)
Part Four Measures of Coercion
Chapter 17. Liberty and Security of Person: The Rules on Imprisonment
I. Introduction	405	(14)
A. General Observations	405	(3)
1. The Texts	405	(2)
2. The Importance of Personal Liberty in Criminal Proceedings	407	(1)
3. The Scope of the Present Chapter	408	(1)
4. The Construction of the Guarantee	408	(1)
B. The Right Guaranteed	408	(4)
1. The Notion of Personal Liberty	408	(1)
2. The Notion of Security of Person	409	(3)
C. The Interference: Arrest and Detention	412	(7)
1. The Definition	412	(1)
2. Space	413	(1)
3. Coercion and Waiver	414	(2)
4. Time	416	(1)
5. Relativity of the Notion of Deprivation of Liberty	417	(2)
II. The Exceptions to Liberty of Person	419	(36)
A. General Aspects	419	(4)
1. The Structure of the Second Sentence of Paragraph 1	419	(1)
2. The Requirement of Lawfulness	420	(3)
(a) The Meaning of 'Law' in the Convention	420	(1)
(b) The Various Elements of 'Lawfulness' in Article 5 § 1	420	(1)
(c) The Degree of Scrutiny Exercised by the Court	421	(2)
B. Detention on Remand: Article 5 § 1(c)	423	(13)
1. Reasonable Suspicion	423	(5)
(a) The Object of the Suspicion	425	(1)
(b) The Suspicion of Having Committed an Offence	426	(1)
(c) When it is 'Reasonably Considered Necessary to Prevent [a Person] Committing an Offence'	427	(1)
(d) When it is Reasonably Considered Necessary to Prevent a Person from Fleeing after Having Committed an Offence	428	(1)
2. The Purpose of Bringing the Person Concerned 'Before the Competent Legal Authority'	428	(1)
3. Specific Aspects of Lawfulness of Detention on Remand	429	(5)
(a) Insufficient Certainty of the Law	429	(2)
(b) Male Captus Bene ludicatus?	431	(2)
(c) Delayed Release	433	(1)
4. Necessity	434	(2)
C. Detention after Conviction: Article 5 § 1(a)	436	(7)
1. General Characteristics	436	(1)
2. Conviction	436	(4)
(a) Definition	436	(1)
(b) Guilt	437	(1)
(c) Final Judgment	437	(1)
(d) Material Justification	437	(2)
(e) Compliance with Article 6	439	(1)
3. Competent Court	440	(1)
4. The Link Between Conviction and Detention: 'After'	440	(3)
5. The Duration of Imprisonment	443	(1)
D. Detention for Non-compliance with a Court Order or to Secure the Fulfilment of a Legal Obligation: Article 5 § 1(b)	443	(2)
1. Detention for 'Non-compliance with the Lawful Order of a Court'	443	(1)
2. Detention 'in Order to Secure the Fulfilment of any Obligation Prescribed by Law'	444	(1)
E. Detention of a Minor: Article 5 § 1(d)	445	(2)
1. 'Minor'	445	(1)
2. The Educational Purpose	445	(1)
3. Detention of a Minor on Remand	446	(1)
4. The Implementation of Deprivation of Liberty of a Minor	446	(1)
F. Detention for the Prevention of the Spreading of Contagious Diseases and of the Socially Maladjusted: Article 5 § 1(e)	447	(4)
1. Detention for the Prevention of the Spreading of Infectious Diseases	447	(1)
2. Persons of Unsound Mind	448	(2)
(a) General Observations	448	(1)
(b) The Three Prerequisites	448	(1)
(c) The Evidence for Mental Illness	448	(1)
(d) The Element of Danger	449	(1)
(e) The Element of Continuation	450	(1)
3. The Place of Detention	450	(1)
4. Addicts	450	(1)
5. Vagrants	451	(1)
G. Detention to Prevent an Unauthorized Entry or with a View to Deportation or Extradition	451	(4)
1. Detention to Prevent Unauthorized Entry	451	(1)
2. Arrest or Detention with a View to Deportation or Extradition	452	(3)
(a) The Formal Character of the Exception	452	(1)
(b) Limitations to the Length of Detention under Sub-paragraph (f)	453	(2)
Chapter 18. The Rights Guaranteed to all Persons Deprived of their Liberty
I. The Right to be Informed of the Reasons for the Arrest	455	(7)
A. Introduction	455	(2)
1. The Texts	455	(1)
2. The Purpose of the Guarantee	456	(1)
3. The Characterization of the Right by the European Court	456	(1)
B. The Elements of the Right to Information	457	(5)
1. The Scope of the Right to be Informed of the Reasons for the Arrest	457	(1)
2. The Nature of the Information to be Conveyed	457	(2)
3. The Addressee of the Information	459	(1)
4. The Time Element	459	(1)
5. The Form of the Information	460	(2)
II. The Right to Habeus Corpus Proceedings	462	(33)
A. Introduction	462	(2)
1. The Texts	462	(1)
2. The Origin and Purpose of the Right	462	(2)
(a) The Origin of the Right to Habeus Corpus Proceedings	462	(1)
(b) The Purpose of the Guarantee	463	(1)
3. The Issues to be Discussed	464	(1)
B. The Scope of the Right to Take Habeas Corpus Proceedings	464	(11)
1. The Autonomous Character of the Guarantee	465	(1)
2. The Condition of Being Deprived of One's Liberty	466	(1)
3. The Scope of Application in Time	466	(2)
(a) Immediate Applicability	466	(1)
(b) Release Pending Habeas Corpus Proceedings	467	(1)
4. Habeas Corpus where the Detention was Ordered by a Court	468	(2)
(a) The 'Doctrine of Incorporation'	468	(2)
(b) A Further Development	470	(1)
5. The Exceptions to the Incorporation Doctrine	470	(5)
(a) Confinement Linked to 'Unsoundness of Mind'	470	(1)
(b) Detention of Dangerous Convicts	471	(3)
(c) Sentences against Juvenile Offenders	474	(1)
(d) Detention for Non-payment of a Fine	475	(1)
C. The Scope of Judicial Control under § 4	475	(3)
1. General Observations	475	(1)
2. Ineffective Remedies	476	(2)
3. Issues of National Security	478	(1)
D. Procedural Requirements	478	(17)
1. Introduction	478	(1)
2. The Right to Access to a Court	479	(3)
(a) Independence and Impartiality	479	(2)
(b) The Power to Release	481	(1)
3. The Procedural Rights	482	(9)
(a) The Right to an Oral Hearing	482	(2)
(b) Equality of Arms and Adversarial Proceedings	484	(1)
(c) The Right of Access to the File	484	(2)
(d) The Right to Legal Assistance	486	(1)
(i) General Rules Concerning Access to Counsel	486	(1)
(ii) The Right to Legal-Aid Counsel	486	(1)
(e) A Presumption Pro Libertate?	487	(2)
(f) A Right to Appeal?	489	(1)
(g) A Right to Submit Multiple Applications	489	(2)
4. The Requirement of Speediness	491	(4)
(a) Issues Related to the Time Element	491	(3)
(b) An Illustration taken from the Case-law	494	(1)
(c) Plurality of Remedies	494	(1)
III. The Right to Compensation	495	(7)
A. Introduction	495	(2)
1. The Texts	495	(1)
2. The Origins of the Guarantee	496	(1)
3. The Characteristics of the Right	496	(1)
B. The Prerequisites of Compensation	497	(3)
1. Detention which is 'Unlawful'/'in Contravention' of paragraphs 1-4 of Article 5	497	(2)
(a) In General	497	(1)
(b) Problems Occurring where the Convention is Not Yet in Force	498	(1)
(c) Procedural Problems	498	(1)
2. Damage	499	(1)
C. The Amount of Compensation	500	(2)
Chapter 19. The Special Rights of Persons Detained on Remand
I. Introduction	502	(3)
A. The Texts	502	(1)
B. The Justification of Special Safeguards for those Detained on Remand	503	(1)
C. Other Safeguards	504	(1)
II. The Right to be Brought before a Judge	505	(11)
A. The Purpose and Character of the Right	505	(2)
B. The Judge or 'Other Officer Authorised by Law to Exercise Judicial Power'	507	(4)
1. The Independence and Impartiality of the Authority	507	(3)
2. The Power to Order Release	510	(1)
C. 'Promptly'I'Aussitht'	511	(3)
1. The Period to be Considered	511	(1)
2. The Time Limit	512	(2)
D. The Procedure Before the Judge	514	(1)
1. The Need for an Oral Hearing	514	(1)
2. The Need for Previous Information	514	(1)
3. The Right to be Assisted by Counsel	514	(1)
4. The Right to a Reasoned Decision	515	(1)
E. The (Ir)Relevance of Situations of Emergency	515	(1)
III. The Limitation in Time of Detention on Remand	516	(16)
A. General Remarks	516	(2)
B. The Period to be Assessed	518	(3)
1. The Beginning of the Period	518	(1)
2. The End of the Period	519	(2)
3. Interruption of the Period	521	(1)
C. Criteria of Reasonableness	521	(13)
1. 'Relevant' and 'Sufficient' Grounds for the Continuing Detention	523	(4)
(a) Danger of Absconding	524	(1)
(b) Risk of Tampering with Evidence and Suborning Witnesses	525	(1)
(c) The Risk of Collusion	526	(1)
(d) The Risk of Reoffending	526	(1)
(e) Protection of Public Order	527	(1)
(f) The Need to Protect the Applicant	527	(1)
2. Grounds which are not Relevant or Sufficient to Justify the Continued Detention	527	(1)
(a) The Seriousness of the Alleged Offence	527	(1)
(b) The Requirements of the Inquiry	528	(1)
3. 'Special Diligence' and the Conduct of the Proceedings	528	(4)
IV. Release on Bail	532	(1)
V. Possibility of Redress	533	(1)
Chapter 20. Other Fundamental Rights Affected by Criminal Proceedings
I. Introduction	534	(1)
A. The Issues Dealt with in this Chapter	534	(1)
B. The General Approach	534	(1)
II. Interference with the Right to Respect for Private Life: General Observations	535	(5)
A. The Basic Structure of the Protection of Private Life	535	(2)
1. The Texts	535	(1)
2. The Elements of the Protection of Private Life	536	(1)
B. The Elements Common to the Protection of Various Aspects of Private Life	537	(3)
1. The Requirement of Lawfulness	537	(2)
2. The Legitimate Aim	539	(1)
3. Necessary in a Democratic Society	540	(1)
III. Surveillance and Interception of Communications	540	(5)
A. Introduction	540	(2)
B. Interception of Written Correspondence	542	(3)
1. The Case-law	542	(1)
2. Principles Concerning Prisoners' Correspondence	543	(2)
IV. Technical Surveillance	545	(7)
A. The Scope of Private Life in this Context	545	(1)
B. The Interference	546	(3)
C. Special Requirements for the Legal Basis	549	(1)
D. The Scope of the Interference	550	(1)
E. 'Necessary in a Democratic Society'	550	(1)
F. Subsequent Notification	551	(1)
V. Storage of Data	552	(3)
A. Applicability of the Right to Respect for Private Life	553	(1)
B. The Interference	554	(1)
C. The Justification of the Interference	554	(2)
1. The Legal Basis	554	(1)
2. The Aim of the Interference	555	(1)
3. Necessary in a Democratic Society	555	(1)
VI. Undercover Agents	555	(1)
VII. Search and Seizure: Interference with the Home	556	(3)
A. The Interference with the Right to Respect for the 'Home'	557	(1)
B. The Legal Basis	557	(1)
C. The Aim of the Interference	558	(1)
D. Necessary in a Democratic Society	558	(1)
VIII. The Protection of Property	559	(3)
A. The Texts	559	(1)
B. Introduction	560	(1)
C. Confiscation	560	(2)
Select Bibliography	562	(20)
Index	582