Identification of Learning Disabilities : Research to Practice

by Bradley, Renee; Danielson, Louis; Hallahan, Daniel P.; Artiles, Alfredo J.

• ISBN13: 9780805844474
• ISBN10: 0805844473
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2002-07-01
• Publisher: Lawrence Erlbau

Summary

Identification of Learning Disabilities: Research to Practiceis the remarkable product of a learning disabilities summit conference convened by the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) in August 2001 and the activities following that summit. Both the conference and this book were seen as important preludes to congressional reauthorization of the historicIndividuals With Disabilities Education Act(IDEA) scheduled for 2002 and subsequent decision making surrounding implementation. The OSEP conference brought together people with different perspectives on LD (parents, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers) and resulted in this book, which examines the research on nine key issues concerning the identification of children with learning disabilities. Coverage includes alternative responses to treatment, classification approaches, processing deficit models, and approaches to decision making. Chapter Structure-- Each of the first nine chapters is organized around a lengthy, issue-oriented paper, which presents the most current research on that topic. These primary papers are then followed by four respondent papers that reflect a variety of viewpoints on the topic. Summarizing Chapter-- A small group of researchers (listed in the final chapter) dedicated an enormous amount of time to summarizing the research and developing key consensus statements regarding the identification of children with learning disabilities. Their work is sure to have a tremendous impact on future discussions in this area. Expertise-- The following well-known scholars have helped summarize the vast amount of research presented in this book as well as the consensus statements derived therefrom: Lynne Cook, Don Deshler, Doug Fuchs, Jack M. Fletcher, Frank Gresham, Dan Hallahan, Joseph Jenkins, Kenneth Kavale, Barbara Keogh, Margo Mastopieri, Cecil Mercer, Dan Reschley, Rune Simeonsson, Joe Torgesen, Sharon Vaughn, and Barbara Wise.

Table of Contents

Foreword	xix
Acknowledgments	xxiii
Introduction	xxv
Learning Disabilities: Historical Perspectives	1	(98)
European Foundation Period (c. 1800 to 1920)	1	(5)
Research on Brain-Behavior Relationships	1	(2)
Research on Reading Disabilities	3	(3)
U.S. Foundation Period (c. 1920 To 1960)	6	(16)
Language and Reading Disabilities	6	(9)
Perceptual, Perceptual-Motor, and Attention Disabilities	15	(7)
Emergent Period (c. 1960 to 1975)	22	(9)
Introduction of the Term Learning Disabilities	22	(2)
Federal Involvement	24	(3)
Parent and Professional Organizations Founded	27	(1)
Educational Programming: Dominance of psychological Processing and Visual Perceptual Training	27	(4)
Solidification Period (c. 1975 to 1985)	31	(7)
Solidification of the Definition	32	(1)
Federal Regulations for Identification of Learning Disabilities	33	(1)
Empirically Validated Educational Procedures	34	(3)
Learning Disabilities Professional Organization Turmoil	37	(1)
Turbulent Period (c. 1985 to 2000)	38	(15)
Learning Disabilities Definitions	38	(2)
Continuation of Research Strands of the Learning Disabilities Research Institutes	40	(3)
Research on Phonological Processing	43	(1)
Biological Causes of Learning Disabilities	44	(2)
Concern over Identification Procedures	46	(2)
Debate Over the Continuum of placements	48	(2)
Postmodernism and Learning Disabilities	50	(3)
References	53	(12)
Endnotes	65	(8)
Response to ``Learning Disabilities: Historical Perspectives''	69	(4)
References	73	(6)
Response to ``Learning Disabilities: Historical Perspectives''	75	(4)
References	79	(3)
Response to ``Learning Disabilities: Historical Perspectives''	81	(1)
The Federal Role	82	(2)
Inclusion for Better or Worse?	84	(2)
References	86	(3)
Response to ``Learning Disabilities: Historical Perspectives''	89	(1)
The Search for a Condition (or Category)	89	(3)
The Search for Cause	92	(1)
The Search for Cures (or Remedies)	92	(1)
On Over-Representation	93	(2)
Concluding Remarks	95	(2)
References	97	(2)
Early Identification and Intervention for Young Children with Reading/Learning Disabilities	99	(86)
Background: Skilled Reading and Reading Disability	100	(10)
Reading Comprehension and Word Reading	100	(3)
Ways to Read Words	103	(1)
The Basis for Orthographic (Word) Reading Skill	104	(3)
The Basis for Decoding Skill	107	(1)
Skilled Reading and Reading Disabilities	107	(3)
Early Identification of Students at Risk for Reading/Learning Disabilities	110	(8)
Degree of Prediction Error	112	(2)
Solving the Problem of Floor Effects	114	(1)
Recent Efforts to Predict RD in Kindergarten	114	(2)
Using Screening Measures to Establish Intervention Criteria	116	(2)
Early Intervention for Students at Risk for Reading/Learning Disabilities	118	(16)
Teaching Phonological Awareness	118	(6)
Teaching Alphabetic Reading Skill (Decoding)	124	(7)
Promoting Orthographic Reading Skill (Fluency)	131	(3)
Final Thoughts	134	(4)
Alternative Approaches to Understanding and Treating Reading/Learning Disability	136	(2)
References	138	(14)
Classroom Prevention Through Differentiated Instruction: Response to Jenkins and O'Connor	151	(1)
Skillful Reading Entails Mastering One's Writing System	152	(1)
Predicting Risk Versus Disability	153	(3)
Implications for Intervention	156	(2)
References	158	(7)
From An ``Exploded View'' of Beginning Reading Toward a Schoolwide Beginning Reading Model: Getting to Scale in Complex Host Environments	163	(2)
Getting Schools as Complex Host Environments to Scale	165	(5)
Conclusion	170	(1)
References	171	(3)
Early Identification and Intervention for Young Children with Reading/Learning/Disabilities	173	(1)
Skilled Reading Versus R/LDs	174	(1)
Early Identification	174	(2)
Early Intervention	176	(1)
Conclusion	177	(1)
References	178	(2)
Response to ``Early Identification and Intervention for Young Children with Reading/Learning Disabilities''	179	(1)
Accuracy of Classification	180	(2)
Dangers in Drawing Conclusions	182	(1)
More Unanswered Questions	183	(1)
Conclusion	184	(1)
References	184	(1)
Classification of Learning Disabilities: An Evidence-Based Evaluation	185	(102)
Introduction	185	(1)
What Is Classification?	186	(1)
Definitions of Learning Disabilities: Implicit Classifications Made Explicit	187	(3)
Discrepancy Hypothesis	190	(16)
Isle of Wight Studies	190	(1)
Is There A Bimodal Distribution?	190	(1)
Can IQ-Discrepant and Low Achieving Poor Readers Be Differentiated?	191	(7)
Other Forms of LD and the IQ-Discrepancy Hypothesis	198	(3)
Psychometric Issues	201	(4)
Conclusions: Discrepancy Hypothesis	205	(1)
Heterogeneity Hypothesis	206	(17)
Listening and Speaking	206	(1)
Reading Disabilities	206	(9)
Math Disabilities	215	(6)
Written Expression	221	(1)
Conclusions: Heterogeneity	221	(2)
Exclusion Hypothesis	223	(9)
Social, Economic, and Cultural Disadvantage	224	(2)
Instruction	226	(1)
Constitutional Factors	227	(4)
Conclusions: Exclusionary Criteria	231	(1)
Future Directions for Classifications of LD	232	(19)
Psychometric Approaches Are Limited	233	(1)
IQ Tests Are Not Needed	234	(1)
``Slow Learner'' Is Not a Useful Concept	235	(1)
Response to Intervention Is Important	236	(1)
Consensus Process	237	(1)
Learning Disabilities Are Real Phenomena	238	(1)
References	239	(12)
Redefining LD Is Not the Answer: A Response to Fletcher, Lyon, Barnes, Stuebing, Francis, Olson, Shaywitz, and Shaywitz	251	(1)
The Reality	251	(1)
The Concept of LD Vs. Its Operational Definition	252	(1)
Implications for Practice	253	(1)
Classification of LD and Response to Treatment	254	(1)
Implications for Research	255	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	256	(2)
References	258	(5)
A Response to Classification of Learning Disabilities: An Evidence-Based Evaluation	263	(1)
Entitlement	263	(1)
Heterogeneity to Specificity	264	(2)
Teacher Competencies	266	(1)
Terminology Pitfalls	266	(1)
Field Realities	267	(1)
Politics	268	(1)
Underachievement	269	(1)
Summary	270	(1)
References	270	(7)
The Sociopolitical Process of Classification Research: Making the Implicit Explicit in Learning Disabilities	273	(4)
References	277	(2)
Classification of Learning Disabilities: Convergence, Expansion, and Caution	279	(1)
Convergence	279	(1)
Expansion	280	(2)
Caution	282	(2)
References	284	(3)
Learning Disabilities as Operationally Defined by Schools	287	(82)
Authoritative Definitions of Learning Disabilities	288	(1)
The Process Prescribed in Idea Guiding School Identification	289	(2)
Stage 1: The Importance of Teacher Referral	291	(3)
Stage 2: Assessment	294	(3)
Stage 3: Placement Committee Deliberations	297	(2)
Developments Further Expanding the Concept of LD in the Public Schools	299	(1)
Deletion of ``Borderline Mental Retardation''	300	(1)
How This Expanded the LD Category	301	(1)
Variations in LD Characteristics Across Sites	302	(4)
The Need to Acknowledge Urban Special Education	306	(1)
Changes in the Importance of Differential Diagnosis	306	(4)
Variability Within the SI LD Population	310	(1)
Issues Raised About the Current Process	311	(1)
Eligibility Using a One-Time-Only Assessment	312	(3)
Assumed Intrinsic/Neurobiological Etiology of LD	315	(2)
Curricular Consequences of the Heterogeneity of SI LD Populations	317	(2)
Where are We Now and Where Might We Go?	319	(1)
Titration of Intensity of Treatments in Decision Making	320	(1)
Issue of Intelligence Testing	321	(2)
Efforts to ``Fix'' LD: The Need for a Broader Perspective	323	(1)
LD and Social Cuss	324	(1)
Concluding Remarks	325	(2)
References	327	(6)
Endnote	333	(1)
Acknowledgments	333	(2)
A Look at Current Practice	335	(1)
Deciding Which Children to Serve	335	(3)
A Proposed Model	338	(3)
A Meta-Research Commentary on MacMillan and Siperstein's ``Learning Disabilities as Operationally Defined by Schools''	341	(1)
The Main Points	341	(1)
Meta-Research Commentary	342	(1)
Research Strategies	343	(1)
Need for Tolerance	344	(2)
Lessons We Should Have Learned	346	(1)
Where We (Continue to) Go Wrong	347	(1)
The Real Problem	348	(1)
References	349	(1)
Endnote	350	(2)
Leveling the Playing Field: Commentary on ``Learning Disabilities as Operationally Defined by Schools''	351	(1)
The Pseudo-Objective Process of Identification and Referral for Services	352	(1)
Toward the Future: Instructional Strategies for the Disenfranchised	352	(1)
Educating the Disenfranchised	353	(1)
Ability to Benefit from Treatment: Valid Alternative, or Yet Another Pipe Dream?	354	(1)
Some Considerations as We Begin to Level the Playing Field	355	(2)
References	357	(2)
Acknowledgments	359	(2)
Minority Overrepresentation: The Silent Contributor to LD Prevalence and Diagnostic Confusion	361	(1)
State Variations	361	(1)
Reasons for MMR Decline	362	(1)
Overrepresentation	363	(1)
Summary	363	(2)
NICHD Dyslexia Studies	365	(1)
Universal Screening and Early Intervention	365	(1)
Outcomes Criteria	366	(1)
Summary	367	(1)
References	367	(2)
Discrepancy Models in the Identification of Learning Disability	369	(98)
Discrepancy and Intra-Individual Differences	369	(1)
Cognitive Discrepancies	370	(1)
Origins of Ability-Achievement Discrepancy	371	(2)
Discrepancy and LD Identification: Rules and Regulations	373	(1)
Formula-Based Discrepancy	373	(1)
Quantifying Discrepancy: Methods	374	(1)
Grade-Level Deviation	374	(1)
Expectancy Formulas	375	(1)
Problems and Issues	375	(2)
Discrepancy Score Components	377	(1)
Standard Score Methods	378	(1)
Difference Scores	379	(1)
Regression Methods	379	(2)
Evaluation of Regression Methods	381	(2)
Evaluation of Discrepancy Methods	383	(1)
Practical Difficulties	384	(1)
Instability of Discrepancy Scores	384	(1)
Discrepancy and the Identification of Learning Disability	385	(2)
Statistical Classification vs. Clinical Judgment	386	(1)
Vagaries of Identification and Prevalence	387	(1)
Confounding Among High-Incidence Mild Disabilities	388	(1)
Confounding Between Learning Disability and Low Achievement	389	(2)
Learning Disability Vs. Low Achievement Debate	391	(1)
Reanalysis of the Minnesota Studies	392	(2)
Examining Learning Disability and Low Achievement Samples	394	(1)
Learning Disability and Intelligence	395	(1)
The Role of Intelligence in Definitions	396	(1)
Defining Learning Disability Without Intelligence	397	(3)
Learning Disability and Low Achievement: Quantitative or Qualitative Differences?	400	(1)
Qualitative Distinctions in Mental Retardation	401	(1)
Qualitative Distinctions in Learning Disability	401	(2)
The Status of Discrepancy in the Identification of Learning Disability	403	(4)
Conclusion	407	(1)
References	407	(20)
There's More to Identifying Learning Disability Than Discrepancy	427	(1)
Foundational Concepts About Learning Disability	427	(2)
Identification Issues: General	429	(3)
Fallibility	430	(1)
Balance	430	(2)
Who's Who?	432	(1)
Summary	433	(1)
References	434	(1)
Endnote	435	(3)
A Functional and Intervention-Based Assessment Approach to Establishing Discrepancy for Students with Learning Disabilities	437	(1)
The Problem Solving Model	438	(3)
Evaluation Results	441	(1)
Does the Problem Solving Model Increase the Rates of Students with High-Incidence Disabilities?	442	(1)
Does the Problem Solving Model Increase the Effectiveness of Prereferral Strategies?	442	(1)
Do the Students Identified with the Problem Solving Model Look Significantly Different Than Traditional LD Students?	443	(1)
Does the Problem Solving Model Affect the Number of Students of Color Referred and Identified for Special Education?	443	(1)
Are Parents Satisfied with the Problem Solving Model?	444	(1)
Conclusion	445	(1)
References	446	(1)
Acknowledgments	447	(6)
Discrepancy Models in the Identification of Learning Disability: A Response to Kavale	449	(4)
References	453	(5)
Do Discrepancy Models Satisfy Either the Letter or the Spirit of Idea?	457	(1)
Concurrent Validity	458	(1)
Predictive Validity	458	(1)
Failure of the Discrepancy Definition	459	(1)
The Low Achievement Definition	459	(2)
Spirit vs. Letter of the Law	461	(2)
Identification As a Means to an End	463	(1)
References	464	(3)
Responsiveness to Intervention: An Alternative Approach to the Identification of Learning Disabilities	467	(98)
Paradigms of LD Classification	469	(8)
Referral	469	(1)
Testing	470	(1)
Team Recommendation	470	(1)
Implications of Competing Paradigms in LD Identification	471	(2)
Definitions of LD and the Discrepancy Approach	473	(1)
Brief Recent History of LD	473	(1)
Issues in Defining LD: The LD/LA Disputes	474	(2)
IQ-Achievement Discrepancy and LD Definition	476	(1)
Responsiveness to Intervention	477	(12)
Historical Background: Aptitude H Treatment Interaction	477	(2)
Brief Overview of ATI Research	479	(1)
Responsiveness to Intervention Defined	480	(1)
Treatment Validity	481	(1)
Support for a Treatment Validity Approach	482	(1)
Requirements for Adopting a Treatment Validity Approach	483	(1)
Ability to Model Academic Growth	483	(2)
Validated Treatment Protocols	485	(3)
Distinguishing Between Acquisition and Performance Deficits	488	(1)
Models of Responsiveness to Intervention	489	(10)
Predictor-Criterion Models	489	(1)
Dual-Discrepancy Model	490	(4)
Functional Assessment Models	494	(2)
Visual Inspection	496	(1)
Reliable Changes in Behavior	496	(2)
Social Validation	498	(1)
Conclusion	499	(8)
Unresolved Issues in the Alternative Responsiveness-To-Intervention Approach	500	(7)
References	507	(12)
Notes	519	(3)
Three Conceptualizations of ``Treatment'' in a Responsiveness-To-Treatment Framework for LD Identification	521	(1)
Three Approaches to Conceptualizing Treatment	522	(5)
Intensive Remediation	522	(3)
Intensive Prevention	525	(1)
General Education Prevention	526	(1)
Conclusions	527	(1)
References	528	(4)
Responsiveness to Interventions: The Next Step in Special Education Identification, Service, and Exiting Decision Making	531	(1)
Issues With the Current System	532	(2)
Abandoning ATI-Based Processes	533	(1)
Intelligence-Achievement Discrepancy	534	(1)
Responsiveness to Intervention-Proposal and Reactions	534	(6)
Early Intervention And Prevention	534	(1)
Diagnosing Solutions	535	(2)
Application of Responsiveness to Intervention Approaches	537	(1)
Successful Exit of Special Education	538	(2)
OSEP Support for Enhancing Outcomes for Students with Disabilities	540	(2)
Alignment of Responsiveness-To-Intervention Practices with IDEA Philosophy	540	(1)
Disability Services With or Without Categorical Designations	541	(1)
OSEP Support for Improvements in Professional Practices	541	(1)
Conclusion	542	(1)
References	542	(7)
Using Response to Treatment for Identifying Students With Learning Disabilities	549	(1)
Is LD Real?	549	(1)
How Accurately Can We Identify Students With LD?	550	(1)
Can Response to Treatment be used as a Means to Identify Students with LD?	551	(1)
What are the Potential Concerns Regarding the Effective Use of Response to Treatment as a Means of Identifying Students with LD?	552	(1)
Should a Response-to-Treatment Model be used for Identifying Students as Learning Disabled?	553	(1)
References	554	(1)
On the Role of Intervention in Identifying Learning Disabilities	555	(1)
The IQ-Achievement Discrepancy Revisited	555	(2)
Models of Responsiveness to Remediation	557	(1)
The Importance of Schoolwide Involvement	558	(1)
Concerns About the Diagnostic Team	558	(1)
Length and Intensity of Remediation	559	(1)
EARLY Identification of At-Risk Children	560	(1)
Sources of Opposition to Gresham's Proposal	560	(2)
Summary	562	(1)
References	562	(2)
Acknowledgments	564	(1)
Empirical and Theoretical Support for Direct Diagnosis of Learning Disabilities by Assessment of Intrinsic Processing Weaknesses	565	(88)
What is Meant by the Term ``Intrinsic Processing'' Weaknesses?	567	(1)
The Use of Processing Language in Different Levels of Explanation	567	(4)
Distinctions Among Types of Psychological Processes	571	(3)
Ways in Which Psychological Processes Can Cause Individual Differences in Performance	574	(1)
Summary	575	(1)
Evidence for Intrinsic Processing Weaknesses as the Cause of Specific Learning Disabilities	576	(1)
The Theory of Phonologically Based Reading Disabilities	577	(3)
The Nonverbal Learning Disabilities Syndrome	580	(2)
Summary	582	(1)
Advantages of a Processing Approach to Diagnosis over Current Discrepancy-Based Approaches	582	(1)
Summary	582	(3)
Difficulties in Implementation of Diagnosis Based on Direct Assessment of Intrinsic Processing Weaknesses	585	(1)
The Knowledge Base Required to Support Process Assessment as a Diagnostic Approach	586	(2)
Difficulties in the Assessment of Psychological Processes Themselves	588	(2)
Summary	590	(1)
Alternatives to Classification Based on Assessment of Intrinsic Processes	591	(1)
The Use of Process-Marker Variables for Early Identification and of Outcome/Response to Treatment Variables for Later Diagnosis	592	(3)
Points of Vulnerability in the Proposed Classification Model	595	(3)
Summary	598	(1)
Potential Threats to Concepts and Practices from the Proposed Diagnostic Approach	599	(1)
Consequences for the Field as a Social-Political-Educational Movement	599	(2)
Consequences for the Field as an Area of Scientific Inquiry	601	(1)
Summary	602	(1)
References	603	(12)
Response to ``Empirical and Theoretical Support for Direct Diagnosis of Learning Disabilities by Assessment of Intrinsic Processing Weaknesses''	615	(1)
Issue at Stake	615	(2)
Torgesen's Position	617	(1)
Other Points	618	(3)
References	621	(3)
A Commentary on ``Empirical and Theoretical Support for Direct Diagnosis of Learning Disabilities by Assessment of Intrinsic Processing Weaknesses''	623	(1)
Discussion	624	(1)
Are Weaknesses in Intrinsic Psychological Processes the True Disabilities?	625	(3)
Can Intrinsic Psychological Processes be Measured Adequately?	628	(2)
Can Torgesen's Approach Improve Diagnosis and Remedial Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities?	630	(2)
References	632	(1)
Endnotes	632	(4)
Blurring the Boundary: A Commentary on Torgesen's Argument for the Use of Process Markers in the Identification of Learning Disabilities	635	(1)
Interactive Origins of Processing Deficits	636	(2)
More Than Phonological Awareness	638	(2)
Conclusions	640	(1)
References	640	(4)
Learning Disabilities is a Specific Processing Deficit, But it is Much More Than Phonological Processing	643	(1)
What Is Meant By Domain-Specific vs. Domain-General ``Intrinsic'' Processes?	644	(3)
Teaching Deficiency or Processing Deficiency?	647	(3)
Summary	650	(1)
References	650	(3)
Clinical Judgments in Identifying and Teaching Children with Language-Based Reading Difficulties	653	(84)
Introduction	653	(1)
Issues in Identification	654	(1)
Research in Identification and Instruction for Specific Reading Disabilities	655	(5)
Identification	655	(2)
What Instruction for Children with SRD Should Include	657	(3)
The Identification of Children With Specific Comprehension Problems	660	(5)
Building an Understanding of a Text	661	(1)
Problems Constructing Inferences	661	(1)
Problems of Specifically Poor Comprehenders are Not Related to Short-Term Memory	662	(1)
Lexical and Semantic Language Processing Deficits	663	(1)
Is This Just a Matthew Effect?	664	(1)
A Clinical Profile	665	(1)
Research on Instruction for Children with Poor Comprehension	665	(2)
Clinically Recognizing Children with Language-Based Reading Disabilities	667	(10)
Recognizing Language-Based Learning Disabilities from Classroom Behaviors	668	(3)
Recognizing the Varied Profiles of Children With Phonological Deficits	671	(2)
Recognizing Children with Specifically Poor Comprehension	673	(1)
Screening for Reading Disabilities	673	(3)
Diagnostic Assessment of Reading Disabilities	676	(1)
Implementing Clinical Judgments in Evaluation and Modification of Instruction	677	(4)
Improving Teachers' Expertise	677	(1)
Individualizing Instruction With On going Assessment	678	(3)
Summary and Future Challenges	681	(2)
References	683	(9)
Acknowledgments	692	(1)
Culture in Learning: The Next Frontier in Reading Difficulties Research	693	(1)
What Is the Phenomenon Under Study? From Reading to the Practice of Literacy	693	(2)
Who is Included in Reading Difficulties Research? Or How to Account for Culture in Learning	695	(3)
How Do Teachers Make Informed Clinical Judgments? Toward a Hybrid Metaphor	698	(1)
Conclusion	699	(1)
References	700	(1)
Endnotes	701	(2)
Clinical Judgments in Identifying and Teaching Children With Reading Disabilities: Another Perspective	703	(1)
Indentification	703	(3)
Discrepancy	706	(1)
Causality	707	(1)
Special Education	708	(1)
Teaching	708	(1)
Instructional Setting	709	(1)
Instruction	709	(1)
Conclusion	710	(1)
References	711	(3)
Clinical Judgment in the Assessment of Learning Disabilities	713	(1)
Discussion of Current Practices	714	(1)
Issues in the Use of Clinical Judgment	715	(1)
Topics in Addition to Reading Disability	715	(4)
Attention, Learning Disabilities, and Reading Disabilities	715	(1)
Listening	715	(1)
Speaking (Oral Expressive Language)	716	(1)
Writing	716	(2)
Reasoning (Metacognition or Executive Function)	718	(1)
Mathematical Abilities and Nonverbal Learning Disabilities	718	(1)
A Concern about Re-Evaluation and Transition	718	(1)
Summary	719	(1)
References	719	(6)
Response to ``Clinical Judgments in Identifying and Teaching Children with Language-Based Reading Difficulties''	725	(1)
Introduction	725	(1)
Summary	725	(1)
New Areas of Research	726	(6)
Identification	726	(2)
The Importance of Fluency in Reading Intervention	728	(3)
Other Comprehension Principles	731	(1)
Conclusion	732	(1)
References	732	(4)
Acknowledgments	736	(1)
Is ``Learning Disabilities'' Just a Fancy Term for Low Achievement? A Meta-Analysis of Reading Differences Between Low Achievers with and Without the Label	737	(54)
History, Politics, and the LD Construct	737	(3)
1980s: The Politicization of LD	740	(4)
Special Education's Soaring Enrollments and Cost	740	(1)
The Regular Education Initiative	741	(1)
LD Research	742	(2)
Summary	744	(1)
1990s: The NICHD Group	744	(4)
The Argument Against IQ Discrepancy as a Valid LD Marker	745	(1)
The Argument for Phonological Deficits as a Valid LD Marker	746	(1)
Similarities Between the NICHD and REI Groups	747	(1)
Meta-Analysis	748	(1)
Need for a Meta-Analysis	748	(1)
Method	749	(4)
Inclusion Criteria and Search Strategies	749	(1)
Coding the Studies	750	(1)
Computation of Individual ESs	751	(1)
Aggregation of ES Within Studies	752	(1)
Preliminary Analyses	752	(1)
Results	753	(2)
Are the ESs Homogeneous?	753	(1)
How Might We Consolidate the Large Number of study Features?	753	(2)
What Does This Meta-Analysis Tell Us?	755	(1)
References	756	(7)
Response to ``Is `Learning Disabilities' Just a Fancy Term for Low Achievement? A Meta-Analysis of Reading Differences between Low Achievers with and Without the Label''	763	(1)
Introduction	763	(1)
The Soundness of the Methodology	764	(1)
The Notion that Students with LD Are Different from Low Achievers in Kind	765	(1)
The Merits/Limitations of Focusing on the Reading Domain Alone	766	(1)
The Role of Developmental Perspective in Understanding the LD Construct	767	(1)
Conclusion	768	(1)
References	769	(7)
Response to ``Is `Learning Disabilities' Just a Fancy Term for Low Achievement? A Meta-Analysis of Reading Differences between Low Achievers with and Without the Label''	773	(3)
References	776	(4)
Response to ``Is `Learning Disabilities'' Just a Fancy Term for Low Achievement? A Meta-Analysis of Reading Differences between Low Achievers with and Without the Label	777	(3)
Use of Valid Practices in Regular Classrooms	780	(1)
Assessment and Classification of Reading Disorders	780	(1)
Incentives for Early Intervention	780	(1)
Preparation of Reading Teachers with Skills in Structured Language Teaching	781	(1)
References	781	(3)
Response to ``Is `Learning Disabilities' Just a Fancy Term for Low Achievement? A Meta-Analysis of Reading Differences between Low Achievers with and Without the Label''	783	(1)
Comparability of Samples	784	(1)
Performance of LD Students is Lower and Becomes More Discrepant Over Time	785	(1)
Timed Tests Measure Reading Competence More Accurately	786	(1)
Objective Measures More Accurate than Teacher Judgment	786	(1)
Need for Special Education	787	(1)
Teacher Training	788	(1)
References	788	(3)
Conclusion	791	(14)
Appendix	805	(4)
Name Index	809	(22)
Subject Index	831