Imaging Systems for Medical Diagnostics Fundamentals, Technical Solutions and Applications for Systems Applying Ionizing Radiation, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Ultrasound

by Oppelt, Arnulf

• ISBN13: 9783895782268
• ISBN10: 3895782262
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-01-13
• Publisher: Publicis

Summary

The book provides a comprehensive compilation of fundamentals, technical solutions and applications for medical imaging systems. It is intended as a handbook for students in biomedical engineering, for medical physicists, and for engineers working on medical technologies, as well as for lecturers at universities and engineering schools. For qualified personnel at hospitals, and physicians working with these instruments it serves as a basic source of information. This also applies for service engineers and marketing specialists.The book starts with the representation of the physical basics of image processing, implying some knowledge of Fourier transforms. After that, experienced authors describe technical solutions and applications for imaging systems in medical diagnostics. The applications comprise the fields of X-ray diagnostics, computed tomography, nuclear medical diagnostics, magnetic resonance imaging, sonography, molecular imaging and hybrid systems. Considering the increasing importance of software based solutions, emphasis is also laid on the imaging software platform and hospital information systems.

Author Biography

Arnulf Oppelt is the author of Imaging Systems for Medical Diagnostics: Fundamentals, Technical Solutions and Applications for Systems Applying Ionizing Radiation, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Ultrasound, 2nd Edition, published by Wiley.

Table of Contents

Part I -- Principles of Image Processing
Physiology of vision	18	(24)
General considerations regarding sensory physiology	18	(1)
The eye	19	(2)
Adequate stimulusus	19	(1)
Anatomy	19	(2)
Functioning of the eye	21	(4)
The imaging mechanism	21	(1)
Aberrations in image production	21	(1)
Eye defects	22	(1)
The accommodation process	23	(1)
Eye movements	23	(1)
Depth of field	24	(1)
Conversion of light into neural impulses	25	(11)
Anatomy of the retina	25	(1)
Spatial resolution	26	(1)
Contrast resolution	27	(2)
Adaptation	29	(4)
Sensitivity to color	33	(1)
Temporal resolution	34	(2)
Neural processing	36	(4)
Anatomy of the visual pathway	36	(1)
Three-dimensional vision	36	(1)
Depth perception	37	(1)
Optical illusions	38	(1)
Visual memory	39	(1)
References	40	(2)
Subjective assessment of image quality	42	(5)
Introduction	42	(1)
ROC Methology	42	(2)
Contrast detail resolution	44	(2)
References	46	(1)
Image rendering	47	(15)
2D imaging	47	(1)
Planar reformation	47	(1)
Segmentation	48	(1)
Surface rendering	49	(1)
Extraction of isosurfaces and the marching-cubes algorithm	49	(1)
Volume rendering	50	(6)
Image-order techniques	50	(2)
Object-order techniques and the shear-warp-factorization	52	(1)
Compositing	53	(3)
Conclusion	56	(1)
Transfer-functions	56	(1)
Local illumination	56	(3)
Volume rendering on graphics adapters	59	(1)
References	60	(2)
Image fusion	62	(34)
Introduction	62	(3)
Clinical relevance	62	(1)
Image fusion steps	62	(2)
General challenges	64	(1)
Registration	65	(18)
Registration by calibration	65	(1)
Image-based, 3D-3D registration	66	(12)
Image-based, 2D-3D registration	78	(4)
Validation of fusion results	82	(1)
Visualization	83	(5)
Visualization of MPR slices	83	(3)
Fusion result visualization using volume rendering techniques	86	(2)
Visualization of fused projection images	88	(1)
Clinical applications	88	(5)
Nuclear medicine: fusion of CT/MR and PET/SPECT images	88	(1)
Surgery	89	(2)
Treatment planning in radiation oncology	91	(1)
Interventional radiology	92	(1)
References	93	(3)
Navigation	96	(22)
Introduction	96	(1)
Principles of navigation	97	(2)
Localizer technologies	99	(5)
Principles of optical tracking systems	99	(2)
Electromagnetic position tracking	101	(2)
Tool calibration	103	(1)
Registration	104	(3)
Point-pair matching using a 3D localizer	105	(1)
Surface matching	106	(1)
Navigation for image-guided surgery and intervention	107	(4)
CT/MRI-based navigation	107	(1)
2D mobile C-arm-based navigation	107	(2)
3D mobile C-arm-based navigation	109	(2)
Navigation accuracy	111	(1)
Clinical applications	111	(2)
Future prospects	113	(1)
References	113	(5)
Part II -- Physics of Imaging
X-ray and γ-radiation	118	(25)
Generation of X-ray and γ-radiation	118	(6)
Properties of X-ray bremsstrahlung	119	(1)
Characteristic radiation	120	(2)
Intensity (energy flux density) of X-radiation	122	(1)
Target material	123	(1)
X-ray and γ-ray interaction with matter	124	(11)
Interaction effects and phenomenological description	124	(1)
The photoelectric effect	124	(3)
Compton effect	127	(3)
Coherent scattering	130	(1)
Interactions with real objects	131	(4)
Biological effects of radiation	135	(6)
Acute or deterministic radiation damage	135	(1)
Stochastic radiation damage	136	(1)
Estimate of radiation risk	136	(4)
Controversy concerning the effects of low radiation doses	140	(1)
References	141	(2)
Concepts in magnetic resonance imaging	143	(41)
Historical survey	143	(1)
The NMR phenomenon	144	(26)
Magnetization	144	(2)
Bloch equations	146	(2)
Relaxation	148	(3)
Magnetization transfer	151	(1)
Nuclear induction	152	(4)
Spin echoes	156	(2)
Steady-state free precession	158	(3)
Diffusion	161	(4)
Spectroscopy	165	(3)
Signal-to-noise ratio	168	(2)
Magnetic resonance imaging	170	(11)
NMR signal in a magnetic field gradient	171	(2)
Spatial resolution	173	(2)
Selective excitation	175	(3)
Pulse sequence and contrast	178	(3)
References	181	(3)
Physical principles of medical ultrasound	184	(30)
Introduction	184	(1)
Ultrasound field	185	(12)
Ultrasound field parameters	185	(2)
Ultrasound propagation	187	(10)
Imaging principles	197	(10)
Echo pulse method	197	(2)
Ultrasound transducer	199	(1)
Imaging methods	200	(2)
Methods of determining flow	202	(5)
Safety of diagnostic ultrasound	207	(3)
Acoustic output regulations	207	(1)
Bioeffects	207	(2)
Output display standard using thermal and mechanical indices	209	(1)
Summary -- prudent use of ultrasound	210	(1)
References	210	(4)
Part III -- Image Reconstruction
System theory	214	(16)
Introduction	214	(1)
Basic quantities for evaluating image quality	214	(14)
Contrast	214	(2)
Spatial resolution	216	(8)
Noise	224	(4)
References	228	(2)
Principles of image reconstruction	230	(14)
Introduction	230	(1)
Basic principles	231	(2)
2D Fourier reconstruction	233	(1)
Number of data	234	(1)
Filtered backprojection	235	(2)
3D projection reconstruction	237	(3)
Backprojection applying homogeneous coordinates	240	(1)
References	241	(3)
Part IV -- Image Instrumentation
Image displays	244	(20)
Advantages and challenges of soft-copy reading	244	(1)
Impact of the human visual system on display design	245	(4)
Contrast sensitivity and spatial resolution	246	(1)
Contrast and dynamic range	247	(2)
Color vision	249	(1)
Medical display technologies	249	(6)
Cathode ray tube monitors	250	(2)
Liquid crystal displays	252	(3)
Technical display performance values	255	(4)
Display size	255	(1)
Spatial resolution	255	(1)
Luminance, contrast ratio, and veiling glare	256	(2)
Dynamic range and display curve	258	(1)
Noise	258	(1)
Digital imaging display systems	259	(1)
References	260	(4)
X-ray components and systems	264	(149)
The X-ray tube	264	(36)
Emitters	265	(7)
Specifications for focal spot size and electron beam shape	272	(8)
The anode assembly	280	(9)
Anode load capacity	289	(3)
X-ray tube vacuum envelopes	292	(4)
Casing design	296	(4)
X-ray generators	300	(15)
General requirements	300	(3)
Technical aspects	303	(2)
Control circuits	305	(4)
Exposure control in direct radiography	309	(3)
Exposure control in indirect radiography	312	(3)
X-ray image detectors	315	(34)
Static detectors	315	(1)
X-ray image intensifiers	316	(7)
Processing the X-ray image intensifier's output image	323	(10)
Flat detectors	333	(16)
X-ray systems	349	(29)
Classification of X-ray systems	350	(7)
Intervention -- a paradigm for a modern X-ray system	357	(21)
Cone-beam CT with C-arm systems	378	(15)
Introduction	378	(2)
Acquisition protocols and system properties	380	(1)
Calibration	381	(3)
Reconstruction	384	(1)
Visualization	384	(1)
Advanced application tools	385	(1)
Image quality	386	(3)
Clinical applications and examples	389	(4)
Outlook	393	(1)
Mammography	393	(11)
System overview	394	(5)
Digital mammography	399	(5)
Other and new modalities	404	(1)
References	404	(9)
Computed X-ray tomography	413	(90)
Principles	413	(21)
Measurement principle	413	(2)
Basic image reconstruction	415	(2)
Single-slice axial CT and spiral CT	417	(5)
Image quality	422	(12)
From single-slice to multi-slice CT	434	(4)
Multi-slice CT (MSCT)	438	(32)
System design	439	(8)
Detector design for MSCT	447	(4)
The cone-angle problem	451	(2)
MSCT spiral scan and reconstruction techniques	453	(13)
Double z-sampling	466	(2)
Dose in MDCT	468	(2)
Multi-slice cardiac CT	470	(9)
Introduction	470	(1)
ECG-triggered MSCT imaging	471	(1)
ECG-gated MSCT imaging	471	(6)
Performance evaluation	477	(2)
Clinical applications	479	(9)
Quantification of coronary calcification	479	(3)
Cardiac and coronary CT angiography	482	(2)
Evaluation of cardiac function	484	(2)
Preventive care: CT of the lung and colon	486	(2)
The future of CT	488	(7)
From multi-slice to area-detector CT	488	(2)
Combined systems	490	(3)
Alternative system concepts	493	(1)
Maximum data volumes and theoretical CT limitations	494	(1)
References	495	(8)
Nuclear medicine	503	(37)
Introduction	503	(1)
Imaging with single photon emitters -- measurement principles and devices	504	(10)
The scintillation detector	504	(2)
The gamma camera (Anger camera)	506	(8)
SPECT systems	514	(10)
General SPECT principle	514	(2)
Overview of current systems	516	(5)
Clinical applications	521	(2)
New detector technologies	523	(1)
PET systems	524	(12)
Principles of PET	524	(6)
Characterization of PET scanners	530	(2)
Clinical applications	532	(4)
References	536	(4)
Magnetic resonance imaging	540	(192)
MR systems and components	540	(59)
System overview	540	(2)
The main magnet	542	(12)
The gradient system	554	(9)
The RF system	563	(16)
System control	579	(1)
Image quality	579	(13)
MR safety	592	(7)
Methods and clinical applications	599	(117)
Sequences and contrast	599	(20)
Parallel imaging techniques (PAT)	619	(9)
Whole-body imaging	628	(3)
MRI and macroscopic motion	631	(38)
MRI and microscopic motion	669	(17)
Clinical examples	686	(12)
Clinical MR spectroscopy	698	(12)
Hyperpolarization	710	(6)
References	716	(16)
Ultrasound imaging systems	732	(89)
Introduction	732	(13)
Operation	732	(1)
Typical modes	733	(12)
System architecture	745	(23)
Beamformer	746	(12)
Mid-processor	758	(7)
Display	765	(3)
Transducer types (from a system perspective)	768	(5)
Sector and vector transducers	768	(1)
Linear transducers	769	(1)
Curved transducers	770	(1)
Intra-cavity transducers	770	(1)
Multi-row arrays (1.25 and 1.5 dimensional arrays)	770	(1)
Hanafy lens approach to control elevation beamwidth	771	(1)
Summary of different transducer types	772	(1)
B-mode imaging	773	(9)
Harmonics for clutter reduction	773	(3)
Transmit pulse coding	776	(3)
Compounding	779	(3)
Contrast agent imaging	782	(4)
Brief discussion of the physics of contrast agents	782	(1)
Destructive contrast agent detection techniques (disruption)	783	(1)
Pulse inversion as a nondestructive contrast agent detection technique	784	(1)
Third order scattering for nondestructive contrast agent detection	785	(1)
Quantification	786	(2)
3D imaging	788	(3)
Wobblers	788	(1)
2D arrays	789	(1)
3D transesophageal imaging	790	(1)
Conclusion	791	(1)
Methods and applications in sonography	792	(28)
2D-imaging	792	(2)
Doppler imaging	794	(7)
Harmonic imaging	801	(4)
Compounding technologies and applications	805	(9)
Workflow-improvement and standardization technologies	814	(1)
Special cardiac transducers and evaluations	815	(5)
References	820	(1)
Special and hybrid systems	821	(42)
Imaging for radiation therapy	821	(9)
Introduction	821	(2)
The portal imaging beam	823	(2)
Portal imaging detectors	825	(2)
Advanced techniques	827	(3)
Summary	830	(1)
Hybrid systems: PET/CT and SPECT-CT	830	(6)
Clinical benefits of combined functional and morphological imaging	831	(1)
Design criteria for PET/CT systems	831	(1)
PET/CT applications	832	(3)
SPECT and CT	835	(1)
Combining imaging modalities for interventional procedures	836	(6)
Interventional angiography combined with CT imaging	837	(2)
Interventional angiography combined with MRI imaging	839	(3)
Imaging in the operating room	842	(18)
Intraoperative imaging	842	(13)
Integrated surgical workplaces	855	(5)
References	860	(3)
Molecular imaging	863	(25)
Introduction	863	(1)
Imaging probes	864	(4)
Signal amplification strategies	868	(1)
Imaging modalities	868	(11)
Nuclear imaging	869	(2)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)	871	(2)
Optical imaging	873	(5)
Computed tomography	878	(1)
Ultrasound	878	(1)
Combined systems	879	(1)
Outlook	879	(1)
References	880	(8)
Part V -- Information Processing and Distribution
Software platform for medical imaging	888	(43)
Overview	888	(1)
Introduction to medical imaging software domain	888	(20)
Aspects of a common style guide	891	(2)
A sample workflow	893	(12)
Analysis of the problem domain	905	(2)
From programming to software configuration	907	(1)
Software terminology	908	(2)
Application architecture	910	(10)
Three-tiered architecture model	912	(3)
Application architecture and component-runtime management	915	(3)
Presentation-logic containerware and componentware	918	(1)
Business logic containerware and componentware	918	(1)
Asynchronous communication: decoupling presentation and business logic	919	(1)
Business objects for medical imaging	920	(1)
Services for medical imaging	921	(5)
Data management services	921	(1)
DICOM work list, storage, query and print-management services	921	(1)
2D/3D/4D image processing services and framework	922	(1)
Security management services	923	(1)
Basic services	924	(1)
Systems management service	925	(1)
Tool support for syngo's product-line architecture	926	(2)
Medical enterprise application integration (EAI)	928	(1)
References	929	(2)
Computer-aided detection and diagnosis (CAD)	931	(12)
Introduction	931	(3)
Performance measurement of CAD systems	934	(1)
Computer-aided detection dataflow	934	(3)
Development and validation of CAD systems -- databases, training and testing of classifiers	937	(2)
Future directions in CAD	939	(2)
References	941	(2)
Hospital information systems	943	(47)
Information system basics	944	(5)
Introduction to hospital information systems	949	(1)
Purpose and classification	950	(3)
Hospital workflow and integration	953	(1)
HIS architecture	954	(4)
Patient administration and revenue management	958	(6)
Functionality	958	(3)
Technical realization of reimbursement workflow	961	(3)
The electronic medical record (EMR)	964	(3)
Functionality	964	(1)
User interface and technical realization	965	(2)
Clinical workflow applications	967	(7)
Functionality	967	(4)
Technical realization of system intelligence	971	(3)
Departmental information system: radiology	974	(5)
The radiology workflow	974	(1)
The radiology information system (RIS)	975	(2)
The picture archiving and communication system (PACS)	977	(2)
Integrated workplaces	979	(4)
Integrated workplaces in radiology	979	(2)
Integrated workplaces in cardiology	981	(2)
The digital hospital and beyond -- a vision	983	(5)
References	988	(2)
Index	990