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Part 1 Introduction
1 Introduction 2
What is I‐O Psychology? 4
Activities and Settings of I‐O Psychologists 4
I‐O Psychology as a Profession 6
I‐O Psychology as a Science 7
History of the Field of I‐O Psychology 8
I‐O Psychology Beyond the United States and the United Kingdom 12
What It Takes to Become an I‐O Psychologist 16
Ethics of the I‐O Field 20
Humanitarian Work Psychology 21
Chapter Summary 21
2 Research Methods in I‐O Psychology 23
Research Questions 24
Important Research Design Concepts 25
Variables 26
Research Setting 26
Generalizability 26
Control 27
Random Assignment and Random Selection 28
Confounding 29
Research Designs 29
Experiments 29
Survey Designs 31
Experience Sampling 32
Observational Designs 32
Qualitative Studies 33
Measurement 34
Classical Measurement Theory 34
Reliability 36
Validity 37
Statistics 38
Descriptive Statistics 38
Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion 38
Correlation 40
Regression 42
Inferential Statistics 43
Meta‐Analysis 45
Mediator and Moderator Variables 46
Research Ethics and Integrity 46
Research Ethics 46
Research Integrity 47
Chapter Summary 48
Part 2 Assessment of Jobs, Performance, and People
3 Job Analysis 52
What is Job Analysis? 53
The Job‐Oriented Approach 53
The Person‐Oriented Approach 55
Purposes of Job Analysis 56
Career Development 57
Legal Issues 57
Performance Appraisal 58
Selection 58
Training 59
Vocational Counseling 59
Research 59
How Job Analysis Information is Collected 60
Who Provides the Information? 60
Approaches to Collecting Job Analysis Information 60
Perform Job 60
Observe 61
Interview 61
Administer a Questionnaire 61
Multiple Approaches 61
Methods of Job Analysis 61
Job Components Inventory 62
Occupational Information Network 63
Position Analysis Questionnaire 65
Task Inventory 66
Choosing a Job Analysis Method 68
Job Analysis Methods for Work Teams 69
Reliability and Validity of Job Analysis Information 69
Reliability 69
Validity 70
Job Evaluation 71
Comparable Worth 72
Chapter Summary 73
I‐O Psychology in Practice 74
4 Performance Appraisal 76
Why Do We Appraise Employees? 77
Administrative Decisions 77
Employee Development and Feedback 77
Research 78
Performance Criteria 78
Characteristics of Criteria 78
Actual Versus Theoretical Criterion 78
Contamination, Deficiency, and Relevance 79
Level of Specificity 81
Criterion Complexity 81
Dynamic Criteria 83
Contextual Performance 83
Methods for Assessing Job Performance 84
Objective Measures of Job Performance 84
Subjective Measures of Job Performance 86
Graphic Rating Forms 86
Behavior-Focused Rating Forms 86
Development of Behavior-Focused Forms 89
Cognitive Processes Underlying Ratings 90
Models of the Rating Process 90
Content of Subordinate Effectiveness 91
Rater Bias and Error 92
Control of Rater Bias and Error 93
Other Factors That Influence Job Performance Ratings 95
360‐Degree Feedback 96
The Impact of Technology on Performance Appraisal 97
Legal Issues in Performance Appraisal 98
Chapter Summary 99
I‐O Psychology in Practice 100
5 Assessment Methods for Selection and Placement 102
Job‐Related Characteristics 103
Psychological Tests 104
Characteristics of Tests 105
Group Versus Individually Administered Tests 105
Closed-Ended Versus Open-Ended Tests 105
Paper and Pencil Versus Performance Tests 105
Power Versus Speed Tests 106
Ability Tests 106
Cognitive Ability Tests 106
Psychomotor Ability Tests 108
Knowledge and Skill Tests 109
Personality Tests 110
Emotional Intelligence Tests 112
Integrity Tests 113
Vocational Interest Tests 114
Other Forms of Testing 115
Credit Checking 115
Drug Testing 115
Biographical Information 116
Interviews 118
Work Samples 121
Assessment Centers 121
Electronic Assessment 125
Electronic Administration of Psychological Tests 125
Computer Adaptive Testing 126
Chapter Summary 127
I‐O Psychology in Practice 128
Part 3 Selecting and Training Employees
6 Selecting Employees 132
The Planning of Human Resource Needs 133
Recruiting Applicants 134
Selecting Employees 137
How Do Organizations Select Employees? 137
Conducting a Validation Study 138
Step 1: Conduct a Job Analysis 138
Step 2: Specify Job Performance Criteria 139
Step 3: Choose Predictors 139
Step 4: Validate the Predictors 140
Step 5: Cross-Validate 140
Validity Generalization 141
How Predictor Information is Used for Selection 141
Multiple Hurdles 141
Regression Approach 142
Alternatives to Conducting Validation Studies 144
Getting Applicants to Accept and Keep Jobs Offered 145
The Utility of Scientific Selection 146
How Valid Selection Devices Work 147
Baserate 147
Selection Ratio 147
Validity 148
How Valid Predictors Increase Success Rates 148
Computing the Utility of Scientific Selection 149
International Differences in Selection Practices 150
Legal Issues 151
Legal Selection in the United States 152
Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection 153
Essential Functions and Reasonable Accommodation 155
Affirmative Action 155
Legal Selection Outside the United States 157
Chapter Summary 157
I‐O Psychology in Practice 158
7 Training 160
Needs Assessment 161
Objectives 162
Training Design 162
Trainee Characteristics 163
Design Factors That Affect Transfer of Training 164
Feedback 164
General Principles 164
Identical Elements 165
Overlearning 165
Sequencing of Training Sessions 166
Work Environment 167
Training Methods 168
Audiovisual Instruction 168
Autoinstruction 169
Conference 169
Lecture 169
Modeling 169
On-the-Job Training 169
Role-Playing 170
Simulations 170
Electronic Training 170
Mentoring 171
Executive Coaching 172
Veteran Reintegration 173
Delivery of a Training Program 173
Evaluation of a Training Program 174
Set Criteria 174
Choose Design 176
Pretest–Posttest Design 177
Control Group Design 177
Choose Measures of the Criteria 178
Collect Data 178
Analyze and Interpret Data 178
Chapter Summary 179
I‐O Psychology in Practice 180
Part 4 The Individual and the Organization
8 Theories of Employee Motivation 184
What is Motivation? 185
Work Motivation Theories 185
Need Theories 186
Need Hierarchy Theory 186
Two‐Factor Theory 187
Expectancy Theory 188
Self‐Efficacy Theory 190
Justice Theories 192
Goal‐Setting Theory 195
Control Theory 198
Action Theory 199
Chapter Summary 200
I‐O Psychology in Practice 202
9 Feelings About Work: Job Attitudes and Emotions 203
The Nature of Job Satisfaction 204
How People Feel About Their Jobs 204
The Assessment of Job Satisfaction 206
Job Descriptive Index (JDI) 206
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) 208
Job in General Scale (JIG) 208
Is Global Satisfaction the Sum of Facets? 209
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction 209
Environmental Antecedents of Job Satisfaction 210
Job Characteristics 210
Pay 212
Justice 213
Personal Antecedents of Job Satisfaction 213
Personality 213
Gender 215
Age 216
Ethnic Differences 216
Person–Job Fit 217
Underemployment 218
Potential Effects of Job Satisfaction 219
Job Satisfaction and Job Performance 219
Job Satisfaction and Turnover 220
Job Satisfaction and Absence 220
Health and Well‐Being 221
Job and Life Satisfaction 221
Organizational Commitment 222
Assessment of Organizational Commitment 223
Organizational Commitment and Other Variables 223
Emotions at Work 225
Causes and Consequences of Emotions at Work 226
Emotional Labor 226
Chapter Summary 227
I‐O Psychology in Practice 228
10 Productive and Counterproductive Employee Behavior 230
Productive Behavior: Task Performance 231
Ability and Task Performance 232
Motivation and Task Performance 232
Personal Characteristics and Task Performance 232
The “Big Five” and Task Performance 233
Locus of Control and Performance 233
Age and Performance 234
Environmental Conditions and Task Performance 235
Job Characteristics and Task Performance 235
Incentive Systems and Performance 236
Design of Technology 237
Organizational Constraints 241
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) 242
Counterproductive Work Behavior: Withdrawal 244
Absence 244
Lateness 245
Turnover 246
Counterproductive Work Behavior: Aggression, Sabotage, and Theft 248
Chapter Summary 250
I‐O Psychology in Practice 251
11 Occupational Health Psychology 253
Occupational Health and Safety 255
Accidents and Safety 255
Infectious Disease Exposure 257
Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) 258
Harmful Substance Exposure 259
Workplace Violence 261
Work Schedules 262
Night Shifts 262
Long Shifts 264
Flexible Work Schedules 265
Occupational Stress 265
The Occupational Stress Process 265
Job Stressors 267
Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict 267
Workload 268
Illegitimate Tasks 269
Social Stressors 269
Organizational Politics 270
Control 270
The Demand/Control Model 272
Alcohol as a Coping Mechanism 272
Recovery 273
Work–Family Conflict 273
Burnout 275
Chapter Summary 276
I‐O Psychology in Practice 277
Part 5 The Social Context of Work
12 Work Groups and Work Teams 280
Work Groups Versus Work Teams 281
Virtual Teams 282
Important Group and Team Concepts 282
Roles 282
Norms 283
Group Cohesiveness 284
Team Conflict 284
Process Loss 285
Team Commitment 285
Team Mental Model 286
Group and Team Performance 286
Performance in the Presence of Others 286
Group Versus Individual Performance on Additive Tasks 287
Brainstorming 289
Group Problem Solving 290
Group Decision Making 290
Group Polarization 291
Groupthink 292
Team Innovation 293
Team KSAOs 294
Group Diversity 295
Interventions with Work Groups in Organizations 295
Autonomous Work Teams 296
Quality Circles 298
Team Building 299
Chapter Summary 300
I‐O Psychology in Practice 301
13 Leadership and Power in Organizations 303
What is Leadership? 304
Sources of Influence and Power 304
French and Raven’s (1959) Bases of Power 304
Yukl’s (1989) Political Action 306
Political Skill 307
Abuse of Supervisory Power 307
Abusive Supervision 307
Sexual and Ethnic Harassment 308
Approaches to the Understanding of Leadership 310
The Trait Approach 311
The Leader Behavior Approach 311
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory 314
Path–goal Theory 317
Leader–member Exchange (LMX) Theory 318
Transformational Leadership Theory 320
Vroom–Yetton Model 321
Women in Leadership Positions 323
Gender and Leadership Style 325
Cross‐Cultural Issues in Leadership 325
Chapter Summary 327
I‐O Psychology in Practice 328
14 Organizational Development and Theory 330
Organizational Development 331
Employee Acceptance of Change 332
Management by Objectives 332
Survey Feedback 335
Team Building 335
T‐Group 336
Effectiveness of OD Programs 337
Organizational Theories 337
Bureaucracy Theory 338
Division of Labor 338
Delegation of Authority 338
Span of Control 339
Line Versus Staff 339
Theory X/Theory Y 340
Open System Theory 341
Sociotechnical Systems Theory 343
Comparison of the Theories 345
Chapter Summary 346
I‐O Psychology in Practice 347
References 349
Glossary 378
Author Index 387
Subject Index 397
