Instructing Students Who Have Literacy Problems (with MyEducationLab)

by McCormick, Sandra; Zutell, Jerry

• ISBN13: 9780131718791
• ISBN10: 0131718797
• Edition: 5th
• Format: Package
• Copyright: 2011-01-01
• Publisher: Allyn & Bacon

Summary

Instructing Students Who Have Literacy Problemshas long been valued because it covers both assessment and instructional strategies in a sound, research-based format. It reflects a balanced view of literacy instruction, comprehensively examining both word study and comprehension, and is the definitive research-based book in the field of assessment and diagnosis. Four complete chapters on literacy assessment detail timely information about formal and informal assessment procedures and make it an invaluable resource. This edition includes new English-language learner sections, more on No Child Left Behind and Reading First, information regarding special needs students, a segment on literacy coaches, and new f luency research and strategies sections.

Table of Contents

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF REMEDIAL AND CLINICAL READING INSTRUCTION	1	(68)
Basic Concepts and Definitions in Reading	2	(28)
Educational Initiatives	4	(2)
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001	4	(1)
Reading First	5	(1)
Pros and Cons	6	(1)
Teacher Assistance	6	(1)
Types of Reading Programs	6	(1)
Roles of Reading Specialists	7	(3)
Assessment and Instructional Tasks	8	(1)
Leadership Tasks	9	(1)
Literacy Coaches	9	(1)
Important Definitions	10	(5)
Disabled Readers/Delayed Readers	12	(1)
The Discrepancy Model	12	(1)
Treatment-Resistance Model	12	(1)
Learning Disability	13	(1)
Dyslexia	14	(1)
A Categorical Definition	14	(1)
Nonprofessional Definitions	14	(1)
A Dimensional Approach	15	(1)
The Incidence of Reading Delay	15	(1)
Milestones in the History of Remedial and Clinical Reading Instruction	16	(5)
Models of the Reading Process	21	(9)
Cognitive-Processing Models	21	(1)
The Rumelhart Model	21	(2)
The Stanovich Model	23	(1)
A Sociocognitive-Processing Model	24	(1)
The Ruddell and Unrau Model	24	(2)
A General Learning Theory With Implications for Reading	26	(1)
Vygotsky's Model of Learning	26	(2)
Reflections	28	(2)
Causes and Correlates of Individual Differences in Reading Ability	30	(39)
Physiological Factors	32	(10)
Sensory Impairments	32	(1)
Vision	32	(1)
Visual Perception	33	(2)
Hearing	35	(1)
Speech	36	(1)
Neurological Difficulties	36	(1)
Brain Damage	37	(1)
Neurological Dysfunctions	38	(1)
Mixed Cerebral Dominance	39	(1)
Attention Deficit Disorder	40	(1)
Prenatal Crack/Cocaine Exposure	41	(1)
Motor Coordination	42	(1)
Hereditary Factors	42	(2)
Emotional Factors	44	(1)
Sociocultural Factors	45	(5)
Socioeconomic Status	46	(2)
Ethnic and Racial Identification	48	(1)
Culturally Determined Gender Roles	49	(1)
Educational Factors	50	(3)
Lack of Research Information	50	(1)
Lack of Time on Task	50	(1)
Inappropriate Instructional Materials and Techniques	51	(1)
Features of Successful Reading Programs	52	(1)
Cognitive Factors	53	(6)
Intelligence	54	(1)
Preferred Learning Modality	55	(1)
Left and Right Brain Hemispheric Functioning	56	(1)
Memory	57	(2)
Other Cognitive Processes	59	(1)
Language Factors	59	(5)
Phonemic Awareness	60	(2)
Oral Language Knowledge	62	(1)
A Call for Preventive Measures	63	(1)
Reading History	64	(2)
Reflections	66	(3)
PART II ASSESSMENT	69	(116)
Assessment for Identification of Reading Problems	70	(26)
Some General Issues Related to Assessment	72	(3)
Formal Testing Versus Informal Testing	72	(1)
High-Stakes Testing Versus Low-Stakes Testing	72	(2)
Appropriate Interpretation of Test Scores	74	(1)
Issues Related to Formal Assessment	75	(6)
Judging the Merits of Test Quality	76	(1)
Norms	76	(1)
Validity	77	(1)
Reliability	77	(1)
Advantages of Standardized Tests	77	(1)
Survey Tests	78	(1)
Diagnostic Tests	78	(1)
Disadvantages of Standardized Tests	78	(1)
Survey Tests	79	(1)
Diagnostic Tests	79	(1)
Improving Test Instruments	80	(1)
Using Standardized Tests With Students Who Speak Nonstandard Dialects and Those Who Are New English Language Learners (ELLs)	80	(1)
Steps in Assessment for Identification	81	(14)
Assessing Potential	82	(2)
Assessing Present Reading Achievement	84	(1)
Entry-Level Assessment	84	(2)
Administering a Standardized Test	86	(5)
Standardized Test Scores: To Convert or Not to Convert?	91	(3)
Computing the Discrepancy Between Potential and Achievement	94	(1)
Reflections	95	(1)
Assessment for Verifying General Reading Levels	96	(24)
Informal Reading Inventories	98	(12)
Administering an IRI	99	(3)
Scoring an IRI	102	(2)
How Did Our Case Study Student Fare on the IRI?	104	(2)
Using an IRI to Analyze Specific Strengths and Weaknesses	106	(4)
Issues Related to Informal Assessment Using IRIs	110	(1)
Advantages of Informal Inventories	110	(1)
Disadvantages of Informal Inventories	110	(1)
Test Instruments Similar to IRIs	110	(2)
Cloze Tests	112	(3)
Preparing a Cloze Test	112	(1)
Administering a Cloze Test	113	(1)
Scoring a Cloze Test	113	(1)
Advantages of Cloze Tests	114	(1)
Disadvantages of Cloze Tests	114	(1)
Computer-Administered Tests	115	(1)
Daily Observations	116	(2)
Oral Reading	118	(1)
Pre- and Postmeasures	119	(1)
Reflections	119	(1)
Assessment for Identifying Specific Strengths and Weaknesses in Reading: Part I	120	(34)
Assessing Prereading Concepts	123	(1)
Assessing Phonemic Awareness	124	(3)
The Yopp-Singer Phoneme Segmentation Test	124	(1)
The Bruce Phoneme Deletion Test	125	(2)
Using a Student's Own Dictated Story for Assessment	127	(1)
Assessing Knowledge of Basic Sight Vocabulary	127	(5)
A Contextual Test of Sight Vocabulary	130	(1)
A Context-Free Test of Sight Vocabulary	131	(1)
Assessing Knowledge of Word Identification Strategies	132	(7)
Formal Measures	134	(5)
Informal Measures	139	(1)
Using the Reading Miscue Inventory	139	(4)
Running Records	143	(1)
Writing Assessment	144	(2)
Spelling Development	146	(2)
Reading and Spelling Connections	147	(1)
Assessing Knowledge of Word Meanings	148	(4)
Formal Measures	148	(2)
Informal Measures	150	(2)
Evaluating Diagnostic Tests	152	(1)
Reflections	153	(1)
Assessment for Identifying Specific Strengths and Weaknesses in Reading: Part II	154	(31)
Assessing Comprehension	155	(9)
Using Conventional Tests	155	(1)
Formal Assessments	155	(2)
Informal Measures	157	(1)
Developing Teacher-Constructed Instruments and Procedures	158	(1)
Assessing Types of Prompts Needed	158	(3)
Using a Variety of Types of Higher-Level Questions	161	(1)
Using Free Recalls, Plus Probes	162	(2)
A Final Word	164	(1)
Assessing Metacognition	164	(2)
Metacognitive Awareness	164	(1)
Monitoring	165	(1)
Strategy Use	166	(1)
Assessing Reading Rate	166	(2)
Formal Measures	166	(1)
Informal Measures	167	(1)
Assessing Attitudes and Interests	168	(2)
Measuring Attitudes Toward Reading	168	(1)
Measuring General Interests	169	(1)
Obtaining Background Information About Students	170	(2)
Performance Assessment	172	(11)
Classroom Observation	173	(3)
Process Assessment	176	(1)
Portfolio Assessment	177	(6)
Assessment Procedures That Are Not Useful	183	(1)
Reflections	184	(1)
PART III INSTRUCTIONAL INTERVENTIONS	185	(232)
Important Principles of Instruction for Delayed Readers	186	(38)
Principles	187	(21)
Principle One: Begin Early	187	(3)
Principle Two: Consider the Benefits of One-to-One Tutoring	190	(1)
Principle Three: Take Into Account the Effects of the Teacher's Instructional Actions During Group Learning	191	(1)
Principle Four: Provide Opportunities for Collaborative Learning	192	(1)
Principle Five: Consider the Implications of Independent Work	192	(1)
Principle Six: Consider Time on Task	193	(1)
Principle Seven: Let the Student Read	194	(1)
Principle Eight: Encourage Outside Reading	194	(1)
Principle Nine: Incorporate High-Quality Literature Into the Program	195	(1)
Reading Aloud to Students	195	(1)
Enhancing Motivation, Interests, and Attitudes	196	(1)
Using Literature to Meet Specific Instructional Objectives	196	(3)
Using Literature to Complement Regular Classroom Programs	199	(1)
Principle Ten: Model Effective Reading Behaviors	200	(1)
Principle Eleven: Stimulate Motivation and Engagement	200	(1)
Antecedents	201	(2)
Consequences	203	(3)
Principle Twelve: Cooperate With the Classroom Teacher	206	(1)
Principle Thirteen: Enlist Parent Involvement	207	(1)
Principle Fourteen: Let Research Guide Your Instruction	208	(1)
Organizing and Managing Remedial and Clinical Reading Programs	208	(10)
Selecting Instructional Materials and Equipment	208	(1)
Individual Books	209	(2)
Book Series	211	(1)
Kits Containing Reading Materials and/or Skills and Strategy Lessons	212	(1)
Workbooks and Reproducibles	213	(1)
Games	213	(1)
Teacher-Made Materials	213	(1)
Magazines and Newspapers	214	(1)
Technology and Equipment	214	(3)
Media	217	(1)
Organizing the Classroom or Clinic to Teach	218	(2)
Physical Organization	218	(1)
Learning Centers and Writing Centers	218	(1)
Bulletin Boards	219	(1)
Pleasant Place to Learn	219	(1)
Planning Schedules for Instruction	220	(2)
Reflections	222	(2)
Word Recognition	224	(40)
The Importance of Recognizing Words at Sight	225	(3)
Sight Word Recognition in the Earliest Stages of Reading	225	(1)
Sight Word Recognition as a Prerequisite and Aid to Word Identification Strategies	226	(1)
Sight Word Recognition Promotes More Word Recognition	226	(1)
Sight Word Recognition and ``Irregular'' Words	226	(1)
Sight Word Recognition as a Basis of Fluency	227	(1)
Sight Word Recognition and Comprehension	227	(1)
Sight Word Recognition and Independent Reading Ability	227	(1)
Sight Word Recognition and Interest in Reading	227	(1)
The Beginnings of Word Recognition	228	(1)
Phases of Word Learning	229	(3)
Phase 1	230	(1)
Phase 2	230	(1)
Phase 3	231	(1)
Phase 4	231	(1)
Phase 5	232	(1)
Word Recognition Instruction for Delayed Readers	232	(12)
More About Exposures to Words	244	(1)
More About Contextual Versus Isolated Practice	245	(2)
More About Specific Teaching Activities	247	(9)
Using Language Experience Stories	247	(3)
The Four Blocks Program	250	(1)
Other Techniques for Sight Vocabulary Learning	250	(2)
Elimination of Word Confusions	252	(2)
Word Recognition and Oral Reading	254	(2)
More About Fluency	256	(5)
Easy Reading	258	(1)
Repeated Readings	258	(1)
Readers' Theater	259	(1)
Modeling	259	(1)
Paired Reading	260	(1)
Choral Reading	260	(1)
Simultaneous Reading	260	(1)
Silent Reading Fluency	261	(1)
Fluency Instruction: The Bottom Line	261	(1)
Reflections	261	(3)
Word Identification	264	(44)
Phonemic Awareness	265	(4)
Using Writing Experiences to Develop Phonemic Awareness	269	(1)
Moving Into Phase 3 of Word Learning: The Full-Alphabetic Phase	269	(20)
The Value of Word Identification Strategies	270	(1)
Word Identification Strategies in the Full-Alphabetic Phase of Word Learning: Phonic Analysis	271	(1)
Instructional Procedures	272	(2)
Consonants	274	(3)
Short Vowel Sounds	277	(1)
Onsets and Rimes	278	(3)
Consonant Clusters and Consonant Digraphs	281	(2)
Long Vowel Sounds	283	(1)
R-Controlled Vowels	283	(2)
Special Vowel Combinations	285	(1)
Phonic Generalizations	285	(4)
Moving Into Phase 4 of Word Learning	289	(15)
Word Identification Strategies in the Full-Alphabetic Phase of Word Learning: Structural Analysis	290	(1)
Instructional Procedures	291	(1)
Inflectional Endings	291	(1)
Recognition of Words When Their Spellings Have Changed Because an Ending Has Been Added	291	(2)
Contractions	293	(1)
Compound Words	294	(2)
Prefixes	296	(1)
Suffixes	297	(2)
Working With Prefixes and Suffixes	299	(2)
Syllabication	301	(3)
Context Clues as a Word Identification Strategy	304	(2)
Reflections	306	(2)
Knowledge of Word Meanings	308	(34)
Direct Instruction	311	(15)
Introductory Guidance	313	(1)
Use Context---Carefully	313	(1)
Use the Dictionary---Judiciously	314	(2)
Use Teacher Explanations	316	(1)
Rich Development	316	(1)
General Features of an Intensive Program of Word Development	316	(1)
Some Specific Activities That Require In-Depth Processing	317	(9)
Independent Word Learning From Text	326	(13)
Incidental Learning	326	(5)
Fostering Independent Learning	331	(1)
Teaching Students About the Uses of Context When Reading Independently	331	(3)
Increasing Dictionary Skills	334	(1)
Working With Important Roots and Other Word Parts	335	(1)
Promoting Out-of-Class Extensions	336	(1)
Using Computer Programs	336	(2)
Instilling an Interest in Words	338	(1)
Learning Words From Oral Language Encounters	339	(2)
Real Experiences	339	(1)
Vicarious Experiences	340	(1)
Reflections	341	(1)
Comprehension of Narrative Text	342	(38)
Comprehension Processes	343	(5)
Narratives	348	(1)
Comprehension Instruction: Narratives	349	(30)
Principles of Good Comprehension Instruction	353	(2)
Introductory Guidance	355	(1)
Assistance With the Immediate Text	355	(5)
Development of Strategies That Can Be Used With a Wide Variety of Texts	360	(5)
Assistance While Reading	365	(1)
Assistance With the Immediate Text	365	(1)
Development of Strategies That Can Be Used With a Wide Variety of Texts	366	(3)
Culminating Events	369	(1)
Assistance With the Immediate Text	370	(2)
Development of Strategies That Can Be Used With a Wide Variety of Texts	372	(7)
Reflections	379	(1)
Comprehension of Expository Text	380	(37)
Expository Text	381	(1)
Comprehension Instruction: Expository Text	382	(26)
Introductory Guidance	385	(1)
Assistance With the Immediate Text	385	(2)
Development of Strategies That Can Be Used With a Wide Variety of Texts	387	(6)
Assistance While Reading	393	(1)
Assistance With the Immediate Text	393	(3)
Development of Strategies That Can Be Used With a Variety of Texts	396	(5)
Culminating Events	401	(1)
Assistance With the Immediate Text	401	(1)
Development of Strategies That Can Be Used With a Wide Variety of Texts	402	(6)
Studying	408	(2)
Metacognition	410	(5)
Metacognitive Strategies	413	(2)
Reflections	415	(2)
PART IV READING INSTRUCTION FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS	417	(68)
The Severely Delayed Reader and the Nonreader	418	(38)
General Characteristics of Severely Delayed Readers and Nonreaders	420	(1)
A General Principle: Instruction Should Approximate the Real Act of Reading	421	(1)
Severely Delayed Readers	422	(7)
Instructional Suggestions for Word Learning	423	(1)
Word Self-Selection	423	(1)
The PASP Program	424	(1)
Analogy Use	424	(2)
Self-Correction of Errors Based on Meaning	426	(1)
Computer-Assisted Instruction	427	(1)
Programming Based on Psycholinguistic Principles	427	(2)
Instruction With Adult Severely Delayed Readers	429	(1)
Nonreaders	429	(24)
The Multiple-Exposure/Multiple-Context Strategy	431	(7)
The Fernald Approach	438	(2)
Reading Mastery: DISTAR Reading	440	(1)
The Orton-Gillingham Approach	441	(1)
Using Predictable Books	442	(2)
Other Instructional Possibilities	444	(1)
Cunningham's Method	444	(1)
An Adapted Language Experience Approach	445	(2)
Other Concerns	447	(1)
Letter Recognition	447	(2)
Phonemic Awareness and Orthographic Processing	449	(1)
Independent Activities for Nonreaders	450	(3)
A Final Word and Vital Points to Remember	453	(1)
Reflections	454	(2)
Other Learners With Special Needs	456	(29)
Students With Linguistic and Cultural Differences	457	(1)
Linguistic Differences	457	(11)
English Language Learners	457	(1)
Oral Language Instruction	458	(3)
Reading Instruction	461	(3)
Assessment	464	(1)
Nonstandard Dialects	465	(3)
Cultural Differences	468	(1)
Special Considerations for At-Risk Students	469	(7)
Differences That May Originate From the Home Environment	470	(1)
Problems That May Originate at School	471	(2)
The Success for All Program	473	(1)
The America Reads Program	474	(2)
Illiteracy and Functional Illiteracy in Older Youths and Adults	476	(6)
Illiteracy Rates in the United States	476	(2)
Reading Level	478	(1)
Grade Completed	478	(1)
Skills Mastered	478	(1)
School-Based and Nonschool-Based Programs	478	(1)
Instructing Illiterate Older Youths and Adults	479	(1)
Instructing Functionally Illiterate Older Youths and Adults	480	(2)
Intergenerational Literacy	482	(1)
Reflections	482	(3)
Appendix Outline for Preparing Case Reports	485	(2)
References	487	(20)
Index	507