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Foreword | p. xi |
Preface | p. xiii |
Dealing with the civilian/military ambivalence toward tritium | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Tritium and tritium technology | p. 2 |
The use of tritium | p. 5 |
Civilian uses of tritium | p. 5 |
Military uses of tritium | p. 8 |
Civilian/military ambivalence of tritium | p. 11 |
Current state of tritium control | p. 16 |
Tritium control at the facility level | p. 16 |
Tritium control at the national level | p. 17 |
Tritium control at the international level | p. 22 |
Rationale for international tritium control | p. 25 |
Reversing vertical proliferation by tritium control | p. 28 |
Tritium control and qualitative disarmament | p. 28 |
The relation of tritium and weight to yield of nuclear weapons | p. 30 |
Consequences of yield reduction by elimination of tritium | p. 33 |
Yield reduction by tritium elimination: possibilities for qualitative nuclear disarmament | p. 35 |
Horizontal nonproliferation of tritium | p. 39 |
Tritium-related activities in de facto nuclear weapons states | p. 39 |
International tritium control for nonproliferation | p. 41 |
Nondiscriminatory tritium control within a Fissile Material Treaty | p. 46 |
The role of tritium within a verified production cutoff for fissile materials | p. 46 |
The principle of reciprocity within a Fissile Material Treaty | p. 49 |
The "integrated cutoff" (ICO) | p. 52 |
Endnotes | p. 55 |
References | p. 63 |
Diversion path analysis | p. 71 |
Introduction | p. 71 |
Diversion path analysis as a method to derive control tasks | p. 71 |
Methodology of diversion path analysis | p. 71 |
Diversion strategies | p. 72 |
Safeguards development methodology | p. 73 |
Facility types and flow paths with relevance to tritium diversion | p. 73 |
Production paths | p. 76 |
Lithium-6 path | p. 76 |
Helium-3 path | p. 91 |
Boron path | p. 93 |
Tritiated water path | p. 94 |
Ternary fission path | p. 97 |
Removal path | p. 99 |
Removal from tritium-handling facilities | p. 99 |
Recovery of abandoned tritium and multisource acquisition | p. 100 |
Survey of worldwide civilian stocks and production capacities | p. 101 |
Nuclear reactors and special neutron sources (facility type 1) | p. 101 |
Fuel fabrication facilities (facility type 2) | p. 102 |
Separate storages for spent fuel (facility type 3) | p. 103 |
Reprocessing plants (facility type 4) | p. 103 |
Final disposal sites for nuclear waste (facility type 5) | p. 104 |
Detritiation facilities (facility type 6) | p. 104 |
Tritium storages and research facilities (facility type 7) | p. 105 |
Tritium industry (facility type 8) | p. 105 |
Summary and outlook | p. 108 |
Survey of worldwide military tritium production | p. 108 |
Conclusions on tritium diversion | p. 113 |
Assessment of diversion possibilities | p. 113 |
High civilian surplus meets military demand | p. 116 |
Endnotes | p. 117 |
References | p. 121 |
Verification of an international tritium control agreement | p. 127 |
Introduction | p. 127 |
Conceptual framework for verification | p. 128 |
Control goals and criteria | p. 128 |
Significant quantities | p. 130 |
Relevant time frames | p. 133 |
Verification of nonproduction | p. 134 |
Verification of production limitations | p. 134 |
Verification of inactivity of production facilities | p. 136 |
Detection of breeding activities | p. 137 |
Verification of inadvertent tritium production | p. 138 |
Verification of nonremoval | p. 139 |
Methodological background of tritium accountancy | p. 139 |
Uncertainty in baseline determination | p. 143 |
Measurement accuracy in inventory-taking | p. 144 |
Tritium sink analysis | p. 152 |
Conclusions on the efficiency of tritium accountancy | p. 156 |
Containment, surveillance, and physical protection | p. 158 |
Containment and surveillance | p. 158 |
Physical protection | p. 158 |
Detection of clandestine facilities and activities | p. 159 |
Control activities at different facility types | p. 162 |
Overview of relevant facilities worldwide | p. 162 |
Control activities | p. 163 |
Conclusions on verification | p. 173 |
Endnotes | p. 176 |
References | p. 183 |
Technical assessment of an international tritium control agreement | p. 189 |
Adequacy and appropriateness | p. 189 |
Nondiscrimination | p. 190 |
Feasibility and completeness | p. 190 |
Control effectiveness | p. 192 |
Minimum interferences with facility operation | p. 194 |
Minimum intrusiveness | p. 194 |
Synergies with other control procedures | p. 194 |
Costs | p. 196 |
Effects on civilian tritium uses | p. 197 |
Acceptability | p. 197 |
Conclusions | p. 197 |
Endnotes | p. 199 |
Acknowledgments | p. 201 |
World tritium facilities, inventories, and production capabilities | p. 203 |
Nuclear reactors and special neutron sources (facility type 1) | p. 204 |
Nuclear power reactors (facility type 1a,b) | p. 204 |
Nuclear research reactors (facility type 1c,d) | p. 208 |
Special neutron sources (facility type 1f) | p. 213 |
Fuel fabrication facilities (facility type 2) | p. 215 |
Separate spent fuel storage facilities (facility type 3) | p. 219 |
Reprocessing plants (facility type 4) | p. 220 |
Final disposal sites for nuclear waste (facility type 5) | p. 224 |
Detritiation facilities (facility type 6) | p. 228 |
Tritium research and storage facilities (facility type 7) | p. 229 |
Commercial tritium manufacturers and trade companies (facility type 8) | p. 231 |
References | p. 232 |
Abbreviations | p. 235 |
Subject index | p. 239 |
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