Into the Nano Era

by Huff, Howard R.

• ISBN13: 9783540745587
• ISBN10: 3540745580
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2008-12-30
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

"As we enter the nanotechnology era, we are also encountering the 50th anniversary of the invention of the IC. Will silicon continue to be the pre-eminent material and will Moore's Law continue unabated, albeit in a broader economic venue, in the nanotechnology era? This monograph addresses these issues through a re-examination of the scientific and technological foundations of the microelectronics era. It is proposed that, by better assessing and understanding the past five decades of this era, a firmer foundation can yet be laid for the research that will ensue and possibly provide a glimpse of opportunities in the nanotechnology era. For example, we are already seeing some potential applications in the bonding of molecular devices onto a previously formed IC chip providing vehicles for the continued growth of the Information Age and further extending opportunities for today's microelectronics porducts. There will, furthermore, no doubt be scientific advances generating opportunities and applications defining new technology initiatives in the nanotechnology era, barely perceived at present. This book will help prepare us to meet these challenges with the requisite skills to facilitate the identification and development of these future initiatives."--BOOK JACKET.

Table of Contents

Foreword: Silicon and Electronics	p. vii
Foreword: Silicon and the III-V's: Semiconductor Electronics (Electron, Hole, and Photon) Forever	p. ix
Preface	p. xiii
List of Contributors	p. xxvii
Historical Background
Silicon: Child and Progenitor of Revolution	p. 3
References	p. 9
The Economic Implications of Moore's Law	p. 11
Introduction	p. 11
Moore's Law: A Description	p. 12
The History of Moore's Law	p. 12
The Microeconomics of Moore's Law	p. 23
The Macroeconomics of Moore's Law	p. 30
Moore's Law Meets Moore's Wall: What Is Likely to Happen	p. 32
Conclusion	p. 35
Appendix A	p. 36
References	p. 38
State-of-the-Art
Using Silicon to Understand Silicon	p. 41
Introduction	p. 41
The Electronic Structure Problem	p. 42
The Empirical Pseudopotential Method	p. 42
Ab Initio Pseudopotentials and the Electronic Structure Problem	p. 47
New Algorithms for the Nanoscale: Silicon Leads the Way	p. 50
Optical Properties of Silicon Quantum Dots	p. 52
Doping Silicon Nanocrystals	p. 55
The Future	p. 58
References	p. 58
Theory of Defects in Si: Past, Present, and Challenges	p. 61
Introduction	p. 61
From Empirical to First-Principles	p. 63
First-Principles Theory	p. 66
First-Principles Theory at Non-zero Temperatures	p. 70
Discussion	p. 73
References	p. 74
Structural, Elemental, and Chemical Complex Defects in Silicon and Their Impact on Silicon Devices	p. 79
Introduction	p. 79
Defect Interactions in Single-Crystalline Silicon	p. 80
Precipitation Behavior, Chemical State, and Interaction of Copper with Extended Defects in Single-Crystalline and Multicrystalline Silicon	p. 84
Precipitation Behavior, Chemical State, and Interaction of Iron with Extended Defects in Silicon	p. 91
Pathways for Metal Contamination in Solar Cells	p. 96
Effect of Thermal Treatments on Metal Distributions and on Device Performance	p. 99
Discussion: Chemical States of Metals in mc-Si	p. 101
Discussion: Interactions between Metals and Structural Defects	p. 104
Discussion: Engineering of Metal-Related Nanodefects by Altering the Distributions and Chemical States of Metals in mc-Si	p. 106
Summary and Conclusions	p. 108
References	p. 109
Surface and Interface Chemistry for Gate Stacks on Silicon	p. 113
Introduction: The Silicon/Silicon Oxide Interface at the Heart of Electronics	p. 113
Current Practices and Understanding of Silicon Cleaning	p. 115
Introduction	p. 115
Silicon Cleans Leading to Oxidized Silicon Surfaces	p. 116
Si Cleans Leading to Hydrogen-Terminated Silicon Surfaces	p. 124
Microscopic Origin of Silicon Oxidation	p. 136
Initial Oxidation of Hydrogen-Terminated Silicon	p. 137
High-Permittivity ("High-k") Gate Stacks	p. 147
Introduction	p. 147
Silicon Surface Preparation and High-k Growth: The Impact of Thin Oxide Films on Nucleation and Performance	p. 148
Post-Treatment of the High-k Layer: Nitridation	p. 156
The pFET Threshold Voltage Issue: Oxygen Vacancies	p. 157
Threshold Voltage Control: Oxygen and Metal Ions	p. 158
Conclusion	p. 161
References	p. 161
Enhanced Carrier Mobility for Improved CMOS Performance	p. 169
Introduction	p. 169
Enhanced Carrier Mobility in Si under Biaxial Tensile Strain	p. 169
Devices	p. 170
Strain-Relaxed SiGe Buffer Layers	p. 171
SGOI and SSOI Substrates	p. 175
Defect-Free (Elastic) Strain Relaxation	p. 178
Enhanced Hole Mobility via Biaxial Compressive Strain	p. 181
Other Methods to Increase Carrier Mobility for Si CMOS Applications	p. 183
Hybrid Crystal Orientation	p. 183
Uniaxial Strain	p. 184
Summary	p. 185
References	p. 186
Transistor Scaling to the Limit	p. 191
Introduction	p. 191
Planar Bulk MOSFET Scaling	p. 193
Thin-Body Transistor Structures	p. 196
Ultra-Thin Body (UTB) MOSFET	p. 197
Double-Gate (DG) MOSFET	p. 199
Tri-Gate (TG) MOSFET	p. 205
Back-Gated (BG) MOSFET	p. 205
Fundamental Scaling Limit and Ultimate MOSFET Structure	p. 207
Advanced Gate-Stack Materials	p. 209
High-k Gate Dielectrics	p. 209
Metallic Gate Electrode Materials	p. 210
Performance Enhancement Approaches	p. 213
Enhancement of Carrier Mobilities	p. 213
Reduction of Parasitic Components	p. 215
Alternative Switching Devices	p. 216
Summary	p. 216
References	p. 217
Future Directions
Beyond CMOS Electronics: Self-Assembled Nanostructures	p. 227
Introduction	p. 227
Conventional "Top-Down" Fabrication	p. 227
"Bottom-Up" Fabrication	p. 228
Strain-Induced Nanostructures	p. 229
Metal-Catalyzed Nanowires	p. 235
Catalyst Nanoparticles	p. 235
Nanowire Growth	p. 238
Germanium and Compound-Semiconductor Nanowires	p. 241
Doping Nanowires	p. 243
Connecting Nanowires	p. 244
Comparison of Semiconducting Nanowires and Carbon Nanotubes	p. 250
Potential Applications of Metal-Catalyzed Nanowires	p. 251
Field-Effect Transistors	p. 251
Field-Effect Sensors	p. 252
Interconnections	p. 252
Summary	p. 253
References	p. 254
Hybrid CMOS/Molecular Integrated Circuits	p. 257
Introduction	p. 257
Top-Down Fabrication vs. Bottom-Up Assembly	p. 257
Typical Molecular Device Characteristics	p. 258
MolMOS: Integrating CMOS and Nanoelectronics	p. 259
The CMOS/Nano Interface	p. 260
CMOS/Nano Co-design	p. 262
The Crossbar Array for Molecular Electronics	p. 264
Molecular Memory Structures	p. 265
Programmable Logic via the Crossbar Array	p. 267
Signal Restoration at the Nanoscale: The Goto Pair	p. 268
Hysteresis and NDR based Devices in Programmable Logic	p. 270
MolMOS Architecture	p. 272
The CMOS Interface & I/O Considerations	p. 272
Augmenting the PMLA with CMOS	p. 272
Array Access for Programmability	p. 273
A More Complete Picture of the Overall Architecture	p. 274
Circuit Simulation of MolMOS System	p. 276
Device Modeling for Circuit Simulation	p. 276
Functional Verification of a Stand-Alone Nanoscale PMLA	p. 276
Conclusions and Future Directions	p. 278
References	p. 279
Sublithographic Architecture: Shifting the Responsibility for Perfection	p. 281
Revising the Model	p. 281
Bottom-Up Feature Definition	p. 282
Regular Architectures	p. 283
Statistical Effects Above the Device Level	p. 283
Defect and Variation Tolerance	p. 283
Differentiation	p. 284
NanoPLA Architecture	p. 285
Defect Tolerance	p. 288
Wire Sparing	p. 288
Crosspoint Defects	p. 290
Variations	p. 291
Roundup	p. 291
Testing and Configuration	p. 292
New Abstraction Hierarchy	p. 293
Lessons from Data Storage	p. 293
Abstraction Hierarchy for Computation	p. 293
Conclusions	p. 295
References	p. 295
Quantum Computing	p. 297
What Is Quantum Computing?	p. 297
History	p. 298
Fundamentals	p. 299
Quantum Algorithms	p. 301
Realizing a Quantum Computer	p. 303
Physical Implementations	p. 306
Josephson Junction Circuits	p. 306
Semiconductor Quantum Dots	p. 308
Ion Traps	p. 311
Outlook	p. 312
References	p. 312
Afterwords
Nano-Whatever: Do We Really Know Where We Are Heading? Phys. Stat. Sol. (a) 202(6), 957-964 (2005)	p. 317
Introduction: "Nano-Talk = Giga-Hype?"	p. 317
From Physics and Technology to New Applications	p. 317
Kroemer's Lemma of New Technology	p. 317
Three Examples	p. 318
Lessons	p. 319
Roots of Nano-Technology	p. 320
Back to the Future: Beyond a Single Degree of Quantization	p. 320
Quantum Wires	p. 320
Quantum Dots	p. 321
More Challenges	p. 322
Lithography Alternatives for the Nanoscale	p. 322
"Loose" Nanoparticles	p. 322
"Other" Quantization Effects	p. 323
Charge Quantization and Coulomb Blockade	p. 323
Magnetic Flux Quantization	p. 323
Spintronics	p. 324
Meta-Materials	p. 324
Research vs. Applications Re-visited	p. 325
Conclusion	p. 326
References	p. 326
Silicon Forever! Really? Solid-State Electr. 50(4), 516-519 (2006)	p. 327
Motivation	p. 327
The End of Scaling	p. 327
The "Beginning" of Architecture	p. 328
Silicon Stands Tall	p. 329
The Silicon Wart	p. 330
Beyond Lithography	p. 331
Conclusion	p. 332
Acknowledgements and Disclaimer	p. 333
Citations	p. 333
Index	p. 335
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