Introducing Physical Geography, 4th Edition

by Alan H. Strahler (Boston Univ.); Arthur Strahler (Columbia Univ.)

• ISBN13: 9780471679509
• ISBN10: 047167950X
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-03-01
• Publisher: WILEY

Summary

Physical Geography continues to present the material needed to fully appreciate the human impact on the environment and the resulting global change. The Fourth Edition offers expanded coverage of global change,includingthree new Eye on Global Change features centered on predictions of the change expected as the human impact on climate increases. It has also been updated to include current examples of environmental phenomena, such as Hurricane Isabel and the recent earthquakes in Turkey.

Table of Contents

Prologue Introducing Physical Geography	2	(4)
Introducing Geography	6	(8)
Human and Physical Geography	7	(2)
Tools in Geography	9	(5)
Understanding Physical Geography	14	(1)
Spheres, Scales, Systems, and Cycles	14	(2)
The Spheres---Four Great Earth Realms	14	(1)
Scale, Pattern, and Process	15	(1)
Systems in Physical Geography	16	(1)
Time Cycles	16	(1)
Physical Geography, Environment, and Global Change	16	(6)
Global Climate Change	18	(1)
The Carbon Cycle	18	(1)
Biodiversity	18	(1)
Pollution	19	(1)
Extreme Events	19	(3)
The Earth as a Rotating Planet	22	(28)
The Shape of the Earth	24	(2)
Earth Rotation	26	(1)
Environmental Effects of Earth Rotation	26	(1)
The Geographic Grid	26	(4)
Focus on Remote Sensing 1.1 • The Global Positioning System	27	(1)
Parallels and Meridians	28	(1)
Latitude and Longitude	28	(2)
Map Projections	30	(2)
Polar Projection	30	(1)
Mercator Projection	30	(2)
Goode Projection	32	(1)
Global Time	32	(6)
Standard Time	33	(1)
Geographer's Tools 1.2 • Geographic Information Systems	34	(2)
World Time Zones	36	(1)
International Date Line	37	(1)
Daylight Saving Time	38	(1)
Precise Timekeeping	38	(1)
The Earth's Revolution Around the Sun	38	(12)
Tilt of the Earth's Axis	38	(1)
Solstice and Equinox	39	(2)
Equinox Conditions	41	(1)
Solstice Conditions	41	(4)
A Closer Look: Geographer's Tools 1.3 • Focus on Maps	45	(5)
The Earth's Global Energy Balance	50	(36)
Electromagnetic Radiation	52	(5)
Radiation and Temperature	54	(1)
Solar Radiation	54	(1)
Characteristics of Solar Energy	55	(1)
Longwave Radiation from the Earth	56	(1)
The Global Radiation Balance	56	(1)
Insolation over the Globe	57	(4)
Insolation and the Path of the Sun in the Sky	57	(3)
Daily Insolation through the Year	60	(1)
Annual Insolation by Latitude	61	(1)
World Latitude Zones	61	(1)
Composition of the Atmosphere	62	(1)
Ozone in the Upper Atmosphere	62	(1)
Sensible Heat and Latent Heat Transfer	63	(1)
The Global Energy System	63	(4)
Solar Energy Losses in the Atmosphere	63	(1)
Eye on Global Change 2.1 • The Ozone Layer---Shield to Life	64	(1)
Albedo	65	(1)
Counterradiation and the Greenhouse Effect	66	(1)
Global Energy Budgets of the Atmosphere and Surface	67	(2)
Incoming Shortwave Radiation	67	(1)
Surface Energy Flows	67	(1)
Focus on Remote Sensing 2.2 • CERES---Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System	68	(1)
Energy Flows to and from the Atmosphere	68	(1)
Climate and Global Change	69	(1)
Net Radiation, Latitude, and the Energy Balance	69	(17)
Eye on the Environment 2.3 • Solar Power	72	(5)
A Closer Look: Geographer's Tools 2.4 • Remote Sensing for Physical Geography	77	(9)
Air Temperature	86	(32)
Surface Temperature	89	(1)
Air Temperature	89	(2)
Measurement of Air Temperature	89	(2)
The Daily Cycle of Air Temperature	91	(4)
Daily Insolation and Net Radiation	91	(1)
Daily Temperature	91	(1)
Temperatures Close to the Ground	92	(1)
Environmental Contrasts: Urban and Rural Temperatures	92	(2)
The Urban Heat Island	94	(1)
Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere	95	(4)
Troposphere	96	(1)
Stratosphere and Upper Layers	96	(1)
High-Mountain Environments	97	(1)
Temperature Inversion	98	(1)
The Annual Cycle of Air Temperature	99	(3)
Net Radiation and Temperature	99	(1)
Land and Water Contrasts	100	(2)
World Patterns of Air Temperature	102	(6)
Factors Controlling Air Temperature Patterns	103	(1)
World Air Temperature Patterns for January and July	104	(1)
The Annual Range of Air Temperatures	104	(4)
Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect	108	(10)
Factors Influencing Climatic Warming and Cooling	108	(1)
The Temperature Record	109	(1)
Future Scenarios	110	(1)
Eye on Global Change 3.1 • Carbon Dioxide---On the Increase	110	(6)
A Closer Look: Eye on Global Change 3.2 • The IPCC Report of 2001	116	(2)
Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation	118	(32)
Three States of Water	120	(1)
The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic Cycle	121	(2)
The Global Water Balance	122	(1)
Humidity	123	(2)
Specific Humidity	123	(1)
Relative Humidity	124	(1)
The Adiabatic Process	125	(2)
Dry Adiabatic Rate	126	(1)
Wet Adiabatic Rate	127	(1)
Clouds	127	(2)
Cloud Forms	128	(1)
Fog	128	(1)
Precipitation	129	(11)
Focus on Remote Sensing 4.1 • Observing Clouds from GOES	130	(3)
Precipitation Processes	133	(1)
Orographic Precipitation	133	(1)
Convectional Precipitation	134	(4)
Thunderstorms	138	(1)
Microbursts	139	(1)
Air Quality	140	(10)
A Closer Look: Eye on the Environment 4.2 • Air Pollution	143	(7)
Winds and Global Circulation	150	(34)
Atmospheric Pressure	152	(2)
Measuring Atmospheric Pressure	153	(1)
How Air Pressure Changes with Altitude	154	(1)
Wind	154	(9)
Measurement of Wind	155	(1)
Winds and Pressure Gradients	155	(1)
A Simple Convective Wind System	156	(1)
Sea and Land Breezes	156	(1)
Local Winds	156	(2)
The Coriolis Effect and Winds	158	(1)
Eye on the Environment 5.1 • Wind Power, Wave Power, and Current Power	159	(2)
Cyclones and Anticyclones	161	(1)
Surface Winds on an Ideal Earth	162	(1)
Global Wind and Pressure Patterns	163	(4)
Subtropical High-Pressure Belts	163	(3)
The ITCZ and the Monsoon Circulation	166	(1)
Wind and Pressure Features of Higher Latitudes	167	(1)
Winds Aloft	167	(6)
The Geostrophic Wind	168	(1)
Global Circulation at Upper Levels	169	(1)
Rossby Waves, Jet Streams, and the Polar Front	170	(3)
Oceanic Circulation	173	(1)
Temperature Layers of the Ocean	173	(1)
Surface Currents	174	(10)
Deep Currents and Thermohaline Circulation	177	(1)
Eye on Global Change 5.2 • El Nino	178	(6)
Weather Systems	184	(28)
Air Masses	186	(4)
North American Air Masses	188	(1)
Cold, Warm, and Occluded Fronts	188	(2)
Traveling Cyclones and Anticyclones	190	(6)
Wave Cyclones	192	(1)
Weather Changes within a Wave Cyclone	193	(1)
Cyclone Tracks and Cyclone Families	194	(1)
The Tornado	195	(1)
Tropical and Equatorial Weather Systems	196	(8)
Easterly Waves and Weak Equatorial Lows	197	(1)
Polar Outbreaks	197	(1)
Focus on Remote Sensing 6.1 • TRMM---The Tropical Rainfall Monitoring Mission	198	(2)
Tropical Cyclones	200	(1)
Impacts of Tropical Cyclones	201	(3)
Poleward Transport of Heat and Moisture	204	(4)
Atmospheric Heat and Moisture Transport	205	(1)
Oceanic Heat Transport	205	(1)
Eye on the Environment 6.2 • Hurricane Andrew---Killer Cyclone	206	(2)
Cloud Cover, Precipitation, and Global Warming	208	(4)
Global Climates	212	(66)
Keys to Climate	214	(7)
Temperature Regimes	215	(1)
Global Precipitation	215	(4)
Seasonality of Precipitation	219	(2)
Climate Classification	221	(9)
Special Supplement 7.1 • The Koppen Climate System	222	(5)
Overview of the Climates	227	(1)
Dry and Moist Climates	228	(2)
Low-Latitude Climates	230	(11)
The Wet Equatorial Climate 1	230	(1)
The Monsoon and Trade-Wind Coastal Climate 2	231	(4)
The Wet-Dry Tropical Climate 3	235	(1)
The Dry Tropical Climate 4	236	(2)
Eye on Global Change 7.2 • Drought and Land Degradation in the African Sahel	238	(3)
Midlatitude Climates	241	(17)
The Dry Subtropical Climate 5	245	(1)
The Moist Subtropical Climate 6	246	(3)
The Mediterranean Climate 7	249	(2)
The Marine West-Coast Climate 8	251	(3)
The Dry Midlatitude Climate 9	254	(1)
The Moist Continental Climate 10	255	(3)
High-Latitude Climates	258	(5)
The Boreal Forest Climate 11	258	(2)
The Tundra Climate 12	260	(2)
The Ice Sheet Climate 13	262	(1)
Highland Climates	263	(1)
Our Changing Climate	263	(15)
A Closer Look: Eye on Global Change 7.3 • Regional Impacts of Climate Change on North America	270	(8)
Biogeographic Processes	278	(52)
Energy and Matter Flow in Ecosystems	280	(13)
The Food Web	281	(1)
Photosynthesis and Respiration	281	(4)
Net Primary Production	285	(2)
Net Production and Climate	287	(1)
Biomass as an Energy Source	287	(1)
The Carbon Cycle	288	(2)
Eye on Global Change 8.1 • Human Impact on the Carbon Cycle	290	(2)
The Nitrogen Cycle	292	(1)
Ecological Biogeography	293	(11)
Water Need	294	(1)
Temperature	295	(1)
Other Climatic Factors	296	(1)
Bioclimatic Frontiers	297	(1)
Geomorphic Factors	298	(1)
Edaphic Factors	299	(1)
Disturbance	300	(1)
Interactions among Species	300	(2)
Focus on Remote Sensing 8.2 • Remote Sensing of Fires	302	(2)
Ecological Succession	304	(3)
Succession, Change, and Equilibrium	306	(1)
Historical Biogeography	307	(10)
Evolution	307	(3)
Eye on the Environment 8.3 • The Great Yellowstone Fire	310	(1)
Speciation	311	(2)
Extinction	313	(1)
Dispersal	313	(3)
Distribution Patterns	316	(1)
Biogeographic Regions	316	(1)
Biodiversity	317	(13)
A Closer Look: Eye on Global Change 8.4 • Monitoring Global Productivity from Space	324	(6)
Global Biogeography	330	(32)
Natural Vegetation	332	(1)
Structure and Life-Form of Plants	333	(1)
Terrestrial Ecosystems---The Biomes	333	(29)
Forest Biome	335	(1)
Focus on Remote Sensing 9.1 • Mapping Global Land Cover by Satellite	336	(6)
Eye on Global Change 9.2 • Exploitation of the Low-Latitude Rainforest Ecosystem	342	(8)
Savanna Biome	350	(1)
Grassland Biome	351	(2)
Desert Biome	353	(2)
Tundra Biome	355	(2)
Altitude Zones of Vegetation	357	(1)
Climatic Gradients and Vegetation Types	357	(5)
Global Soils	362	(34)
The Nature of the Soil	365	(4)
Soil Color and Texture	365	(1)
Soil Colloids	366	(1)
Soil Acidity and Alkalinity	367	(1)
Soil Structure	367	(1)
Minerals of the Soil	368	(1)
Soil Moisture	368	(1)
The Soil Water Balance	369	(2)
A Simple Soil Water Budget	370	(1)
Soil Development	371	(5)
Soil Horizons	371	(1)
Soil-Forming Processes	372	(1)
Soil Temperature and Other Factors	373	(1)
Eye on the Environment 10.1 • Death of a Civilization	374	(2)
The Global Scope of Soils	376	(13)
Soil Orders	377	(10)
Desert and Tundra Soils	387	(2)
A Midcontinental Transect from Aridisols to Alfisols	389	(1)
Global Climate Change and Agriculture	389	(7)
A Closer Look: Eye on Global Change 10.2 • Global Climate Change and Agriculture	393	(3)
Earth Materials	396	(24)
The Crust and Its Composition	398	(2)
Rocks and Minerals	399	(1)
Igneous Rocks	400	(5)
Common Igneous Rocks	400	(2)
Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rocks	402	(2)
Chemical Alteration of Igneous Rocks	404	(1)
Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks	405	(7)
Eye on the Environment 11.1 • Battling Iceland's Heimaey Volcano	406	(2)
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks	408	(2)
Chemically Precipitated Sedimentary Rocks	410	(1)
Hydrocarbon Compounds in Sedimentary Rocks	410	(2)
Metamorphic Rocks	412	(1)
The Cycle of Rock Change	413	(7)
Focus on Remote Sensing 11.2 • Geologic Mapping with Aster	414	(6)
The Lithosphere and Plate Tectonics	420	(30)
The Structure of the Earth	423	(2)
The Earth's Interior	423	(1)
The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere	424	(1)
The Geologic Time Scale	425	(1)
Major Relief Features of the Earth's Surface	426	(6)
Relief Features of the Continents	426	(2)
Relief Features of the Ocean Basins	428	(4)
Plate Tectonics	432	(13)
Tectonic Processes	432	(1)
Plate Motions and Interactions	433	(3)
Eye on the Environment 12.1 • The Wilson Cycle and Supercontinents	436	(4)
The Global System of Lithospheric Plates	440	(1)
Subduction Tectonics	441	(1)
Orogens and Collisions	442	(1)
Continental Rupture and New Ocean Basins	442	(2)
The Power Source for Plate Movements	444	(1)
Continents of the Past	445	(5)
Volcanic and Tectonic Landforms	450	(30)
Landforms	452	(1)
Volcanic Activity	453	(8)
Stratovolcanoes	456	(1)
Shield Volcanoes	456	(5)
Volcanic Activity over the Globe	461	(1)
Volcanic Eruptions as Environmental Hazards	461	(1)
Landforms of Tectonic Activity	461	(8)
Eye on the Environment 13.1 • Geothermal Energy Sources	462	(1)
Fold Belts	463	(1)
Faults and Fault Landforms	463	(1)
Focus on Remote Sensing 13.2 • Remote Sensing of Volcanoes	464	(4)
The Rift Valley System of East Africa	468	(1)
Earthquakes	469	(11)
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics	471	(1)
Seismic Sea Waves	472	(1)
Earthquakes along the San Andreas Fault	473	(3)
Eye on Environment 13.3 • The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004	476	(4)
Weathering and Mass Wasting	480	(30)
Physical Weathering	483	(4)
Frost Action	483	(1)
Salt-Crystal Growth	484	(2)
Unloading	486	(1)
Other Physical Weathering Processes	486	(1)
Chemical Weathering and Its Landforms	487	(1)
Hydrolysis and Oxidation	487	(1)
Acid Action	487	(1)
Mass Wasting	488	(6)
Slopes	490	(1)
Soil Creep	491	(1)
Earthflow	491	(1)
Environmental Impact of Earthflows	492	(1)
Mudflow and Debris Flood	493	(1)
Landslide	494	(1)
Induced Mass Wasting	494	(4)
Induced Earthflows	495	(1)
Scarification of the Land	496	(1)
Eye on the Environment 14.1 • The Great Hebgen Lake Disaster	497	(1)
Processes and Landforms of Arctic and Alpine Tundra	498	(12)
Permafrost	499	(2)
The Active Layer	501	(1)
Forms of Ground Ice	501	(1)
Patterned Ground and Solifluction	502	(2)
Alpine Tundra	504	(2)
Environmental Problems of Permafrost	506	(1)
Climate Change in the Arctic	506	(4)
Fresh Water of the Continents	510	(34)
Ground Water	514	(2)
The Water Table Surface	514	(1)
Aquifers	515	(1)
Limestone Solution by Ground Water	516	(2)
Limestone Caverns	516	(1)
Karst Landscapes	517	(1)
Problems of Ground Water Management	518	(2)
Water Table Depletion	519	(1)
Contamination of Ground Water	520	(1)
Surface Water	520	(5)
Overland Flow and Stream Flow	521	(1)
Eye on Global Change 15.1 • Sinking Cities	522	(1)
Stream Discharge	522	(3)
Drainage Systems	525	(1)
Stream Flow	525	(4)
How Urbanization Affects Stream Flow	526	(1)
The Annual Flow Cycle of a Large River	526	(1)
River Floods	527	(1)
Flood Prediction	528	(1)
The Mississippi Flood of 1993	528	(1)
Lakes	529	(8)
Saline Lakes and Salt Flats	533	(1)
Desert Irrigation	533	(1)
Eye on the Environment 15.2 • The Great Lakes	534	(2)
Pollution of Surface Water	536	(1)
Surface Water as a Natural Resource	537	(7)
A Closer Look: Eye on Global Change 15.3 • The Aral Sea---A Dying Saline Lake	541	(3)
Landforms Made by Running Water	544	(30)
Fluvial Processes and Landforms	546	(1)
Erosional and Depositional Landforms	547	(1)
Slope Erosion	547	(3)
Accelerated Erosion	547	(1)
Sheet Erosion and Rilling	548	(1)
Colluvium and Alluvium	549	(1)
Slope Erosion in Semiarid and Arid Environments	549	(1)
The Work of Streams	550	(2)
Stream Erosion	550	(1)
Stream Transportation	551	(1)
Capacity of a Stream to Transport Load	552	(1)
Stream Gradation	552	(15)
Landscape Evolution of a Graded Stream	553	(2)
Great Waterfalls	555	(2)
Dams and Resources	557	(1)
Aggradation and Alluvial Terraces	558	(2)
Focus on Remote Sensing 16.1 • A Canyon Gallery	560	(2)
Alluvial Rivers and Their Floodplains	562	(1)
Entrenched Meanders	563	(2)
The Geographic Cycle	565	(1)
Equilibrium Approach to Landforms	565	(2)
Fluvial Processes in an Arid Climate	567	(7)
Alluvial Fans	568	(1)
The Landscape of Mountainous Deserts	568	(6)
Landforms and Rock Structure	574	(22)
Rock Structure as a Landform Control	576	(2)
Strike and Dip	578	(1)
Landforms of Horizontal Strata and Coastal Plains	578	(5)
Arid Regions	578	(1)
Drainage Patterns on Horizontal Strata	579	(1)
Coastal Plains	579	(1)
Focus on Remote Sensing 17.1 • Landsat Views Rock Structures	580	(3)
Landforms of Warped Rock Layers	583	(3)
Sedimentary Domes	583	(2)
Fold Belts	585	(1)
Landforms Developed on Other Land-Mass Types	586	(10)
Erosion Forms on Fault Structures	586	(1)
Metamorphic Belts	586	(1)
Exposed Batholiths and Monadnocks	587	(1)
Deeply Eroded Volcanoes	588	(2)
Eye on the Environment 17.2 • Marvelous, Majestic, Monolithic Domes	590	(6)
Landforms Made by Waves and Wind	596	(32)
The Work of Waves	598	(8)
Wave Characteristics	599	(1)
Marine Scarps and Cliffs	600	(4)
Beaches	604	(1)
Littoral Drift	604	(1)
Littoral Drift and Shore Protection	605	(1)
Tidal Currents	606	(1)
Tidal Current Deposits	606	(1)
Types of Coastlines	607	(6)
Shorelines of Submergence	607	(1)
Barrier-Island Coasts	607	(1)
Delta and Volcano Coasts	608	(3)
Coral-Reef Coasts	611	(1)
Raised Shorelines and Marine Terraces	612	(1)
Rising Sea Level	612	(1)
Wind Action	613	(1)
Erosion by Wind	613	(1)
Dust Storms	613	(1)
Sand Dunes	614	(5)
Types of Sand Dunes	615	(3)
Coastal Foredunes	618	(1)
Loess	619	(9)
Induced Deflation	620	(4)
A Closer Look: Eye on Global Change 18.1 • Global Change and Coastal Environments	624	(4)
Glacial Landforms and the Ice Age	628	(26)
Glaciers	630	(2)
Alpine Glaciers	632	(6)
Landforms Made by Alpine Glaciers	633	(1)
Glacial Troughs and Fiords	633	(3)
Focus on Remote Sensing 19.1 • Remote Sensing of Glaciers	636	(2)
Ice Sheets of the Present	638	(1)
Sea Ice and Icebergs	639	(1)
The Ice Age	639	(2)
Glaciation During the Ice Age	640	(1)
Landforms Made by Ice Sheets	641	(4)
Erosion by Ice Sheets	641	(1)
Deposits Left by Ice Sheets	642	(2)
Environmental Aspects of Glacial Deposits	644	(1)
Investigating the Ice Age	645	(9)
Possible Causes of the Late-Cenozoic Ice Age	645	(3)
Possible Causes of Glaciation Cycles	648	(1)
Holocene Environments	649	(1)
Eye on Global Change 19.2 • Ice Sheets and Global Warming	650	(4)
Epilogue News from the Future	654	(7)
Appendix 1 The Canadian System of Soil Classification	661	(7)
Appendix 2 Climate Definitions and Boundaries	668	(2)
Appendix 3 Topographic Map Symbols	670	(2)
Appendix 4 Conversion Factors	672	(1)
Glossary	673	(29)
Photo Credits	702	(2)
Index	704