Introducing Physical Geography: Updated and Upgraded

by Strahler, Alan H.; Strahler, Arthur

• ISBN13: 9780471372936
• ISBN10: 0471372935
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1999-11-01
• Publisher: John Wiley & Sons Inc

Summary

Put Yourself in the Picture with Our Visualization CD-ROM Studying geography is now easier than ever before with the help of the Visualization 2.0 CD-ROM. The upgraded version of this innovative software, included with this text, includes new animation and graphics that will greatly enhance your understanding of the material presented in the book. You'll be able to learn at your own pace, receive immediate feedback, and repeat demonstrations. The Visualization CD-ROM: * Enables a better understanding of concepts and processes that are important in this course of study, such as the relationship of earth and sun, the development of storms, and the patterns of climate, soils and vegetation. * Complements the textbook with animations and movies for key topics. * Contains a gallery of over 300 captioned photos as well as over 300 illustrations taken from the text. * Gives convenient access to many of the same drawings, diagrams, animations and movies that your instructor will use in the classroom. With the purchase of this book, you'll also be given a password that provides free access to the On-Line Student Companion on the web. This comprehensive study guide lets you take practice quizzes and receive immediate results, run tutorials for selected topics and surf to other relevant web sites. By using the study guide and CD-ROM, you'll begin to understand the world in a whole new way!

Table of Contents

Prologue Introducing Earth	2	(5)
What is Physical Geography All About?	7	(1)
The Physical Geography of Our Planet	7	(1)
The Four Great Realms	7	(1)
The Life Layer	8	(1)
Scale	8	(1)
Physical Geography and the Human Habitat	8	(5)
Our Place in the Sun	13	(18)
The Shape of the Earth	13	(1)
Earth Rotation	14	(1)
Direction of Rotation	14	(1)
Environmental Effects of Earth Rotation	14	(1)
The Geographic Grid	15	(4)
Parallels and Meridians	15	(1)
Latitude and Longitude	15	(2)
Map Projections	17	(1)
Polar Projections	17	(1)
Mercator Projection	17	(1)
Goode Projection	18	(1)
Global Time	19	(3)
Standard Time	20	(1)
World Time Zones	20	(1)
International Date Line	21	(1)
Daylight Saving Time	21	(1)
The Earth's Revolution Around the Sun	22	(9)
Tilt of the Earth's Axis	23	(1)
Solstice and Equinox	23	(1)
Equinox Conditions	23	(2)
Solstice Conditions	25	(1)
Earth-Sun Cycles and Ice Ages	26	(5)
The Earth's Global Energy Balance	31	(20)
Electromagnetic Radiation	31	(3)
Radiation and Temperature	31	(1)
Solar Radiation	32	(1)
Characteristics of Solar Energy	33	(1)
Longwave Radiation from the Earth	34	(1)
The Global Radiation Balance	34	(1)
Insolation over the Globe	34	(3)
The Path of the Sun in the Sky	35	(1)
Insolation Through the Year	36	(1)
Annual Insolation by Latitude	36	(1)
World Latitude Zones	37	(1)
Composition of the Atmosphere	38	(1)
Ozone in the Upper Atmosphere	38	(2)
The Ozone Layer---Shield to Life	40
Sensible Heat and Latent Heat Transfer	39	(1)
The Global Energy System	39	(5)
Insolation Losses in the Atmosphere	39	(3)
Albedo	42	(1)
Counterradiation and the Greenhouse Effect	42	(1)
Global Energy Budgets of the Atmosphere and Surface	43	(1)
Net Radiation, Latitude, and the Energy Balance	44	(7)
Air Temperature and Air Temperature Cycles	51	(26)
Measurement of Air Temperature	51	(2)
The Daily Cycle of Air Temperature	53	(3)
Daily Insolation and Net Radiation	53	(1)
Daily Temperature	54	(1)
Temperatures Close to the Ground	54	(1)
Urban and Rural Temperature Contrasts	55	(1)
The Urban Heat Island	55	(1)
Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere	56	(4)
Troposphere	57	(1)
Stratosphere	57	(1)
High-Mountain Environments	57	(1)
Temperature Inversion and Frost	58	(2)
The Annual Cycle of Air Temperature	60	(3)
Net Radiation and Temperature	60	(1)
Land and Water Contrasts	61	(2)
World Patterns of Air Temperature	63	(5)
Factors Controlling Air Temperature Patterns	64	(1)
World Air Temperature Patterns for January and July	64	(3)
The Annual Range of Air Temperatures	67	(1)
Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect	68	(9)
Carbon Dioxide---On the Increase	69	(1)
The Temperature Record	70	(1)
Future Scenarios	70	(7)
Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation	77	(30)
Water---The Global Perspective	77	(2)
The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic Cycle	77	(2)
The Global Water Balance	79	(1)
Humidity	79	(3)
Specific Humidity	79	(2)
Relative Humidity	81	(1)
The Adiabatic Process	82	(1)
Dry Adiabatic Rate	82	(1)
Wet Adiabatic Rate	83	(1)
Clouds	83	(3)
Cloud Forms	84	(1)
Fog	84	(2)
Precipitation	86	(21)
Air Pollution	88	(7)
Precipitation Processes	95	(1)
Orographic Precipitation	95	(1)
Convectional Precipitation	96	(3)
Thunderstorms	99	(8)
Winds and Global Circulation	107	(28)
Atmospheric Pressure	107	(2)
Measuring Atmospheric Pressure	107	(1)
How Air Pressure Changes with Altitude	108	(1)
Winds and Pressure Gradients	109	(4)
Sea and Land Breezes	109	(1)
The Coriolis Effect and Winds	110	(1)
Cyclones and Anticyclones	111	(1)
Surface Winds on an Ideal Earth	112	(1)
Global Wind and Pressure Patterns	113	(5)
Subtropical High-Pressure Belts	116	(1)
The ITC and the Monsoon Circulation	116	(1)
Wind and Pressure Features of Higher Latitudes	117	(1)
Local Winds	118	(1)
Winds Aloft	119	(3)
Global Circulation at Upper Levels	119	(1)
Rossby Waves	120	(1)
Jet Streams	121	(1)
Ocean Currents	122	(6)
Surface Currents	122	(2)
El Nino	124	(3)
Deep Currents and Thermohaline Circulation	127	(1)
Poleward Transport of Heat and Moisture	128	(7)
Weather Systems	135	(20)
Traveling Cyclones and Anticyclones	135	(10)
Air Masses	135	(2)
North American Air Masses	137	(1)
Cold, Warm, and Occluded Fronts	137	(2)
Wave Cyclones	139	(1)
Weather Changes Within a Wave Cyclone	140	(2)
Cyclone Tracks and Cyclone Families	142	(1)
The Tornado	143	(2)
Tropical and Equatorial Weather Systems	145	(5)
Easterly Waves and Weak Equatorial Lows	145	(1)
Tropical Cyclones	145	(2)
Impacts of Tropical Cyclones	147	(1)
Hurricane Andrew---Killer Cyclone	148	(2)
Cloud Cover, Precipitation, and Global Warming	150	(5)
Global Climates	155	(42)
Global Precipitation	155	(2)
Climate Classification	157	(6)
The Koppen Climate System	159	(4)
Low-Latitude Climates	163	(13)
The Wet Equatorial Climate	164	(3)
The Monsoon and Trade-Wind Coastal Climate	167	(2)
The Wet-Dry Tropical Climate	169	(2)
The Dry Tropical Climate	171	(1)
Drought and Land Degradation in the African Sahel	172	(4)
Midlatitude Climates	176	(11)
The Dry Subtropical Climate	177	(2)
The Moist Subtropical Climate	179	(1)
The Mediterranean Climate	180	(3)
The Marine West-Coast Climate	183	(1)
The Dry Midlatitude Climate	184	(1)
The Moist Continental Climate	185	(2)
High-Latitude Climates	187	(10)
The Boreal Forest Climate	187	(2)
The Tundra Climate	189	(2)
The Ice Sheet Climate	191	(6)
Global Ecosystems	197	(42)
Energy Flow in Ecosystems	197	(3)
The Food Web	197	(2)
Biomass, Net Primary Production, and Climate	199	(1)
Organisms and Environment	200	(6)
Habitat	200	(1)
Organisms and Water Need	201	(2)
Organisms and Temperature	203	(1)
Other Climatic Factors	204	(1)
Ecological Succession	205	(1)
Natural Vegetation	206	(2)
Structure and Life-Form of Plants	206	(2)
Terrestrial Ecosystems---The Biomes	208	(31)
Forest Biome	209	(5)
Exploitation of the Low-Latitude Rainforest Ecosystem	214	(9)
Savanna Biome	223	(1)
Grassland Biome	224	(3)
Desert Biome	227	(2)
Tundra Biome	229	(1)
Altitude Zones of Vegetation	230	(1)
Climatic Gradients and Vegetation Types	231	(8)
Global Soils	239	(28)
The Nature of the Soil	239	(5)
Soil Color and Texture	240	(1)
Soil Colloids	241	(1)
Soil Acidity and Alkalinity	241	(1)
Soil Structure	242	(1)
Minerals of the Soil	242	(1)
Soil Moisture	243	(1)
Soil Development	244	(3)
Soil Horizons	244	(1)
Soil-Forming Processes	245	(1)
Soil Temperature	246	(1)
The Global Scope of Soils	247	(20)
Soil Orders	249	(9)
Death of a Civilization	258	(1)
Desert and Tundra Soils	259	(8)
Earth Materials	267	(22)
The Crust and Its Composition	267	(1)
Rocks and Minerals	267	(1)
Igneous Rocks	268	(5)
Common Igneous Rocks	270	(1)
Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rocks	271	(2)
Chemical Alteration of Igneous Rocks	273	(1)
Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks	273	(7)
Battling Iceland's Heimaey Volcano	274	(2)
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks	276	(2)
Chemically Precipitated Sedimentary Rocks	278	(2)
Hydrocarbon Compounds in Sedimentary Rocks	280	(1)
Metamorphic Rocks	280	(2)
The Geologic Time Scale	282	(1)
The Cycle of Rock Change	282	(7)
The Lithosphere and Plate Tectonics	289	(26)
The Structure of the Earth	289	(2)
The Earth's Interior	289	(1)
The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere	290	(1)
Major Relief Features of the Earth's Surface	291	(7)
Relief Features of the Continents	291	(3)
Relief Features of the Ocean Basins	294	(4)
Plate Tectonics	298	(8)
Tectonic Processes	298	(1)
Plate Motions and Interactions	299	(1)
The Global System of Lithospheric Plates	300	(3)
Subduction Tectonics	303	(1)
Orogens and Collisions	304	(1)
Continental Rupture and New Ocean Basins	305	(1)
The Power Source for Plate Movements	306	(1)
Continents of the Past	306	(9)
Alfred Wegener and Continental Drift	308	(7)
Volcanic and Tectonic Landforms	315	(24)
Landforms	315	(1)
Volcanic Activity	316	(7)
Stratovolcanoes	316	(3)
Shield Volcanoes	319	(3)
Volcanic Activity over the Globe	322	(1)
Landforms of Tectonic Activity	323	(5)
Fold Belts	323	(1)
Faults and Fault Landforms	324	(3)
The Rift Valley System of East Africa	327	(1)
Earthquakes	328	(11)
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics	328	(2)
Seismic Sea Waves	330	(1)
Earthquakes Along the San Andreas Fault	330	(2)
The Northridge Earthquake of 1994	332	(7)
Weathering and Mass Wasting	339	(20)
Slopes and Regolith	339	(1)
Physical Weathering	340	(5)
Frost Action	340	(3)
Salt-Crystal Growth	343	(1)
Unloading	344	(1)
Other Physical Weathering Processes	344	(1)
Chemical Weathering and Its Landforms	345	(2)
Hydrolysis and Oxidation	345	(1)
Acid Action	345	(2)
Mass Wasting	347	(4)
Soil Creep	348	(1)
Earthflow	348	(1)
Mudflow	349	(1)
Landslide	350	(1)
Induced Mass Wasting	351	(8)
Induced Earthflows	351	(1)
The Great Hebgen Lake Disaster	352	(1)
Scarification of the Land	353	(6)
Fresh Water of the Continents	359	(24)
Ground Water	360	(2)
The Water Table	361	(1)
Aquifers	362	(1)
Limestone Solution by Ground Water	362	(3)
Limestone Caverns	362	(2)
Karst Landscapes	364	(1)
Problems of Ground Water Management	365	(3)
Water Table Depletion	365	(1)
Sinking Cities	366	(1)
Contamination of Ground Water	366	(2)
Surface Water	368	(9)
Overland Flow and Stream Flow	368	(1)
Stream Discharge	369	(2)
Drainage Systems	371	(1)
River Floods	371	(1)
Flood Prediction	372	(1)
Lakes	373	(2)
Saline Lakes and Salt Flats	375	(1)
Desert Irrigation	376	(1)
Pollution of Surface Water	376	(1)
Surface Water as a Natural Resource	377	(6)
Landforms Made By Running Water	383	(26)
Fluvial Processes and Landforms	383	(1)
Erosional and Depositional Landforms	383	(1)
Slope Erosion	384	(2)
Accelerated Erosion	384	(1)
Sheet Erosion and Rilling	385	(1)
Colluvium and Alluvium	385	(1)
Slope Erosion in Semiarid and Arid Environments	385	(1)
The Work of Streams	386	(2)
Stream Erosion	386	(1)
Stream Transportation	387	(1)
Capacity of a Stream to Transport Load	387	(1)
Stream Gradation	388	(10)
Landscape Evolution of a Graded Stream	389	(1)
Battling the Mighty Mississippi	390	(3)
Great Waterfalls	393	(1)
Evolution of a Fluvial Landscape	394	(2)
Aggradation and Alluvial Terraces	396	(1)
Alluvial Rivers and Their Floodplains	397	(1)
Entrenched Meanders	398	(1)
Fluvial Processes in an Arid Climate	398	(4)
Alluvial Fans	400	(2)
The Landscape of Mountainous Deserts	402	(7)
Landforms and Rock Structure	409	(20)
Rock Structure as a Landform Control	409	(1)
Strike and Dip	409	(1)
Landforms of Horizontal Strata and Coastal Plains	410	(3)
Arid Regions	410	(1)
Drainage Patterns	411	(1)
Coastal Plains	412	(1)
Landforms of Warped Rock Layers	413	(3)
Sedimentary Domes	413	(2)
Fold Belts	415	(1)
Landforms Developed on Other Landmass Types	416	(13)
Erosion Forms on Fault Structures	416	(1)
Metamorphic Belts	417	(1)
Exposed Batholiths and Monadnocks	418	(1)
Deeply Eroded Volcanoes	418	(2)
Marvelous, Majestic, Monolithic Domes	420	(9)
Landforms Made By Waves and Wind	429	(28)
The Work of Waves	429	(6)
Marine Cliffs	430	(1)
Beaches	430	(2)
Littoral Drift	432	(2)
Littoral Drift and Shore Protection	434	(1)
Tidal Currents	435	(1)
Tidal Current Deposits	435	(1)
Types of Coastlines	436	(6)
Coastlines of Submergence	436	(1)
Barrier-Island Coasts	436	(2)
Delta and Volcano Coasts	438	(1)
Coral-Reef Coasts	439	(2)
Raised Shorelines and Marine Terraces	441	(1)
The Threat of Rising Sea Level from Global Warming	442	(1)
Wind Action	442	(3)
Erosion by Wind	443	(1)
Dust Storms	444	(1)
Sand Dunes	445	(5)
Types of Sand Dunes	445	(4)
Coastal Foredunes	449	(1)
Loess	450	(7)
Induced Deflation	452	(5)
Glacial Landforms and the Ice Age	457	(19)
Glaciers	457	(1)
Alpine Glaciers	458	(5)
Landforms Made by Alpine Glaciers	459	(2)
Glacial Troughs and Fiords	461	(2)
Ice Sheets of the Present	463	(1)
Sea Ice and Icebergs	464	(1)
The Ice Age	465	(2)
Glaciation During the Ice Age	466	(1)
Landforms Made by Ice Sheets	467	(3)
Erosion by Ice Sheets	467	(1)
Deposits Left by Ice Sheets	467	(3)
Environmental Aspects of Glacial Deposits	470	(1)
Investigating the Ice Age	470	(2)
Possible Causes of the Late Cenozoic Ice Age	471	(1)
Possible Causes of Glaciation Cycles	471	(1)
Ice Sheets and Global Warming	472	(1)
Holocene Environments	472	(4)
Epilogue NEWS FROM THE FUTURE	476	(26)
Perspective on the News	476	(6)
Appendices
I. More About Maps	482	(6)
II. Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems	488	(8)
III. The Canadian System of Soil Classification	496	(6)
Glossary	502	(23)
Photo Credits	525	(2)
Index	527	(10)
Conversion Factors	537	(1)
Relief Surface of the Earth	538	(2)
Topographic Map Symbols	540	(4)
Science News	544	(42)
Visualization 2.0 CD-ROM, Getting Started	586