Introduction to Cosmetic Formulation and Technology

An accessible and practical review of cosmetics and OTC drug-cosmetic products

In the newly revised second edition of Introduction to Cosmetic Formulation and Technology, veteran educator and researcher Dr. Gabriella Baki delivers a comprehensive discussion of cosmetics and personal care products, including coverage of basic concepts, ingredient selection, formulation technology, and testing. The book offers a clear and easy-to-understand review of cosmetics and over the counter (OTC) drug-cosmetic products available in the United States.

In this latest edition, the author expands on general concepts and adds brand-new chapters on the basics of cosmetics testing, ingredients, and skin lightening products. Each chapter includes a summary of common abbreviations with questions provided online, alongside a solutions manual for instructors.

Readers will also find:

A thorough introduction to the basic definitions, claims, and classifications of cosmetics and OTC drug-cosmetic products
Comprehensive explorations of the current rules and regulations for cosmetics and OTC drug-cosmetic products in the United States and European Union
Detailed review of cosmetic ingredients, functions, and typical uses both in a dedicated a chapter and included within various others
Practical coverage of good manufacturing practices for cosmetics, including documentation, buildings and facilities, equipment, and personnel
Fulsome review of a variety of skin and hair care products, color cosmetics, and other personal care products

Perfect for undergraduate and graduate students studying cosmetic science in chemistry, chemical engineering, pharmaceutical, biomedical, and biology departments, Introduction to Cosmetic Formulation and Technology will also benefit cosmetic chemists, cosmetic product formulators, cosmetic scientists, quality control managers, cosmetic testing specialists, and technicians.

Gabriella Baki, PhD, is an associate professor and the program director of the Bachelor of Science in Pharmaceutical Sciences Cosmetic Science and Formulation Design major at the University of Toledo College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. She also serves as a research advisor for students in her cosmetic science research group.

Author Biography xxiii

Preface xxv

Acknowledgments xxvii

About the Companion Website xxix

Part 1 General Concepts 1

1 Basic Definitions. Claims. Classification of Cosmetics and OTC Drug–Cosmetic Products 3

Learning Objectives 3

Key Concepts 4

1.1 What Is Cosmetic Science? 5

1.2 Basic Definitions 8

1.2.1 United States 8

1.2.2 Other Markets 10

1.3 How is a Product’s Intended Use Established in the US? 13

1.4 Classification of Cosmetics and OTC Drug–Cosmetic Products 14

1.5 Cosmetic Claims 15

1.5.1 Types of Claims 15

1.5.2 Regulation of Cosmetic Claims in the US 17

1.5.3 Popular Cosmetic Claims 18

1.6 A Special Category: Soap 27

Glossary of Terms 28

Abbreviations 30

References 30

2 Cosmetic Ingredients and Active Ingredients Used in OTC Drug–Cosmetic Products 33

Learning Objectives 33

Key Concepts 34

2.1 Cosmetic Ingredients 35

2.1.1 Abrasives 35

2.1.2 Antioxidants 36

2.1.3 Chelating Agents 37

2.1.4 Color Additives 38

2.1.5 Exfoliants 41

2.1.6 Film Formers 42

2.1.7 Flavoring Agents 42

2.1.8 Fragrances 43

2.1.9 Moisturizers 45

2.1.10 pH Adjusters 46

2.1.11 pH Buffers 46

2.1.12 Plasticizers 46

2.1.13 Preservatives 47

2.1.14 Propellants 48

2.1.15 Silicones 48

2.1.16 Solvents 49

2.1.17 Surfactants 50

2.1.18 Sweeteners 53

2.1.19 Thickeners 53

2.2 Active Ingredients 55

2.2.1 Anti-Acne Ingredients 56

2.2.2 Anticavity Ingredients 57

2.2.3 Anti-Dandruff Ingredients 57

2.2.4 Antiperspirant Ingredients 57

2.2.5 Skin Protectant Ingredients 58

2.2.6 Topical Antiseptic Ingredients 58

2.2.7 UV Filters 59

Glossary of Terms 59

Abbreviations 61

References 62

3 Product forms for Cosmetics and OTC Drug–Cosmetic Products 65

Learning Objectives 65

Key Concepts 66

3.1 Introduction 66

3.2 What is a Product Form? 67

3.3 Product Forms for Cosmetic Applications 68

3.3.1 Solution 68

3.3.2 Emulsion 69

3.3.3 Suspension 72

3.3.4 Ointment 74

3.3.5 Paste 75

3.3.6 Gel 75

3.3.7 Powder 76

3.3.8 Capsule 77

3.3.9 Stick 77

3.3.10 Aerosol 77

Glossary of Terms 78

Abbreviations 79

References 80

4 Government and Independent Organizations in the Cosmetic Industry 81

Learning Objectives 81

Key Concepts 82

4.1 Introduction 83

4.2 Food and Drug Administration 83

4.2.1 FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) 84

4.2.2 FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) 84

4.3 Personal Care Product Council 85

4.4 Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel 85

4.5 Federal Trade Commission 86

4.6 National Advertising Division 87

4.7 Environmental Protection Agency 87

4.8 International Fragrance Association (IFRA) 88

4.9 Research Institute for Fragrance Materials (RIFM) 88

4.10 Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) 88

4.11 European Commission 89

4.12 Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety 89

4.13 Cosmetics Europe – the Personal Care Association 89

Glossary of Terms 90

Abbreviations 90

References 91

5 Current Rules and Regulations for Cosmetics and OTC Drug–Cosmetic Products in the United States and European Union 93

Learning Objectives 93

Key Concepts 94

5.1 Introduction 95

5.2 Regulation in the US 95

5.2.1 Registration of Manufacturing Facilities and Products 95

5.2.2 Premarket Approval 97

5.2.3 Manufacturing 98

5.2.4 Use of Ingredients 98

5.2.5 Product Safety 99

5.2.6 Packaging and Labeling 101

5.2.7 Import of Products 102

5.2.8 Recalls 102

5.3 Regulation in the EU 104

5.3.1 Registration of Manufacturing Facilities and Products 105

5.3.2 Premarket Approval 105

5.3.3 Manufacturing 105

5.3.4 Use of Ingredients 105

5.3.5 Product Safety 106

5.3.6 Packaging and Labeling 107

5.3.7 Import of Products 107

5.3.8 Recalls 107

Glossary of Terms 108

Abbreviations 108

References 109

6 Cosmetic Good Manufacturing Practices 111

Learning Objectives 111

Key Concepts 112

6.1 Cosmetic Good Manufacturing Practices 112

6.1.1 Documentation 115

6.1.2 Records 115

6.1.3 Buildings and Facilities 116

6.1.4 Equipment 116

6.1.5 Personnel 116

6.1.6 Raw Materials 117

6.1.7 Production 117

6.1.8 Laboratory Controls 117

6.1.9 Internal Audit 117

6.1.10 Complaints Adverse Events and Recalls 117

Glossary of Terms 119

Abbreviations 120

References 120

7 Labeling Tutorial for Cosmetics and OTC Drug–Cosmetic Products Marketed in the United States. INCI Names 121

Learning Objectives 121

Key Concepts 122

7.1 Introduction 123

7.1.1 Definitions 124

7.2 Cosmetic Products 125

7.2.1 Principal Display Panel 125

7.2.2 Information Panels 127

7.3 OTC Drug–Cosmetic Products 130

7.3.1 Principal Display Panel 130

7.3.2 Information Panels 131

7.4 INCI Naming 134

7.5 Do You Know the Exact Composition of a Cosmetic Product or OTC Drug–Cosmetic Product? 136

Glossary of Terms 137

Abbreviations 138

References 139

8 Testing of Cosmetics and OTC Drug–Cosmetic Products 141

Learning Objectives 141

Key Concepts 142

8.1 Product Development Cycle 143

8.2 Product Testing 144

8.2.1 Quality Testing 145

8.2.2 Stability Testing 147

8.2.3 Safety Testing 150

8.2.4 Performance Testing 153

Glossary of Terms 156

Abbreviations 157

References 157

Part 2 Skin Care Products 161

9 Skin Anatomy and Physiology 163

Learning Objectives 163

Key Concepts 164

9.1 Introduction 165

9.2 Structure and Function of Human Skin 165

9.2.1 Epidermis 165

9.2.2 Dermis 170

9.2.3 Hypodermis 172

9.3 Main Characteristics of Human Skin 172

9.3.1 Moisture Content of Normal Skin 172

9.3.2 Skin Flora and Skin pH 174

9.3.3 Surface Charge of Normal Skin 175

9.3.4 Skin Types 175

Glossary of Terms 178

Abbreviations 180

References 180

10 Skin Cleansing Products 183

Learning Objectives 183

Key Concepts 185

10.1 Introduction 186

10.2 Types and Definition of Skin Cleansing Products 186

10.3 History of Using Skin Cleansing Products 187

10.4 How Skin Cleansers May Affect the Skin 188

10.5 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 191

10.6 Basic Concepts of Skin Cleansing Products 191

10.6.1 Classification Based on Chemical Nature and Mildness 191

10.6.2 Classification Based on Cleaning Principle 192

10.6.3 Classification Based on Foamability 193

10.6.4 Classification Based on Product Types 194

10.7 Typical Ingredients and Formulation of Skin Cleansing Products 195

10.7.1 Facial Cleansers 195

10.7.2 Body Cleansers 200

10.7.3 Hand Cleansers 206

10.8 Considerations When Selecting Skin Cleansing Products 211

10.9 Typical Quality Problems of Skin Cleansing Products 212

10.9.1 Sticky Bath Salts and Bath Bombs 212

10.9.2 Broken Bath Bombs 213

10.9.3 Discoloration of Bar Soaps 213

10.9.4 Poor Foaming Activity of Foaming Formulations 213

10.9.5 Separation of Emulsions 213

10.9.6 Cloudy Solution 215

10.9.7 Microbiological Contamination 215

10.9.8 Clump formation 216

10.9.9 Rancidity 216

10.10 Evaluation of Skin Cleansing Products 216

10.10.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 216

10.10.2 Efficacy (Performance) Parameters Generally Tested 229

10.11 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 231

10.11.1 Parabens 231

10.11.2 Sulfates 232

10.11.3 1,4-Dioxane 232

10.11.4 Microbeads 233

10.12 Packaging of Skin Cleansing Products 233

Glossary of Terms 234

Abbreviations 236

References 237

11 Skin Moisturizing Products 243

Learning Objectives 243

Key Concepts 244

11.1 Introduction 245

11.2 Types and Definition of Skin Moisturizers 245

11.3 History of Using Skin Moisturizers 246

11.4 How Skin Moisturizers May Affect the Skin 247

11.5 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 249

11.6 Typical Ingredients and Formulation of Skin Moisturizers 249

11.6.1 Skin Hydrating and Moisturizing Ingredients 250

11.6.2 Additional Ingredients in Skin Moisturizers 254

11.7 Product Types 256

11.7.1 Formulation of Skin Moisturizers 258

11.8 Considerations When Selecting Skin Moisturizers 259

11.9 Typical Quality Issues of Skin Moisturizer Formulations 260

11.10 Evaluation of Skin Moisturizing Products 260

11.10.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 260

11.10.2 Efficacy (Performance) Parameters Generally Tested 260

11.11 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 267

11.12 Packing of Skin Moisturizers 268

Glossary of Terms 269

Acronyms 270

References 270

12 Products for Aging 275

Learning Objectives 275

Key Concepts 276

12.1 Introduction 277

12.2 Changes in Skin Structure and Function During Aging 277

12.2.1 Intrinsic Aging 277

12.2.2 Extrinsic Aging 279

12.3 Drug or Cosmetic? 281

12.4 Typical Ingredients Used in Topical Antiaging Products 282

12.4.1 Botanical Extracts 283

12.4.2 Antioxidants 283

12.4.3 Peptides and Proteins 284

12.4.4 Retinoids 284

12.4.5 Hydroxy Acids 285

12.4.6 Sunscreens 286

12.4.7 Chemical Peels 286

12.5 Formulation Considerations of Topical Antiaging Products 287

12.6 Formulation Challenges of Common Antiaging Ingredients 290

12.7 Safety Concerns Regarding the Use of Topical Noninvasive Antiaging Ingredients 291

12.7.1 AHAs 292

12.7.2 Topical Retinoids 292

12.7.3 Peptides and Proteins 292

12.8 Packing of Antiaging Products 293

Glossary of Terms 293

Abbreviations 294

References 295

13 Products for Acne 301

Learning Objectives 301

Key Concepts 302

13.1 Introduction 302

13.2 Anatomy and Physiology of the Pilosebaceous Unit 303

13.3 Development of Acne 304

13.3.1 Pathogenesis of Acne 304

13.3.2 Causes of Acne and Potential Exacerbating Factors 305

13.4 Symptoms and Types of Acne Vulgaris 307

13.4.1 Noninflammatory Acne 307

13.4.2 Inflammatory Acne 308

13.5 Treatment of Acne Vulgaris 309

13.5.1 Topical Treatment Options 309

13.5.2 Systemic Treatment Options 312

13.5.3 Additional Treatment Options 313

13.6 Formulation Considerations 314

13.7 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 315

13.7.1 Topical Ingredients 315

13.7.2 Oral Retinoids 315

13.7.3 Antibacterial Resistance 316

13.8 Packaging of Anti-Acne Products 316

Glossary of Terms 316

Abbreviations 317

References 317

14 Skin Lightening Products 323

Learning Objectives 323

Key Concepts 324

14.1 Introduction 325

14.2 Skin Color and Production of Melanin 325

14.3 Common Hyperpigmention Lesions 327

14.4 History of Using Skin Lightening Products 329

14.5 Drug or Cosmetic? 329

14.6 How Skin Lightening Products May Affect the Skin 330

14.7 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 331

14.8 Typical Ingredients used in Skin Lightening Products 331

14.8.1 Mechanism of Action 331

14.8.2 Ingredients 332

14.9 Formulation Considerations and Challenges for Topical Skin Lightening Products 334

14.10 Important Considerations When Using Skin Lightening Products 335

14.11 Typical Quality Issues of Skin Lightening Formulations 336

14.12 Evaluation of Skin Lightening Products 336

14.12.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 336

14.12.2 Performance (Efficacy) Parameters Generally Tested 336

14.13 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 339

14.13.1 Hydroquinone 339

14.13.2 Topical Retinoids 339

14.13.3 Chemical Peels 339

14.14 Packaging of Skin Lightening Products 340

Glossary of Terms 340

Abbreviations 341

References 341

15 Sun Care Products 347

Learning Objectives 347

Key Concepts 348

15.1 Introduction 349

15.2 Sun Protection Basics 350

15.2.1 The Light Spectrum 350

15.2.2 UV Radiation 351

15.2.3 Sun Protection Factor 353

15.2.4 Broad Spectrum Protection 355

15.2.5 Water Resistance 356

15.3 Effects of UV Radiation on the Human Body 356

15.4 Types and Definition of Sun Care Products 358

15.5 History of Using Sun Care Products 359

15.6 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 360

15.7 Sunscreens 361

15.7.1 UV Filters 361

15.7.2 Additional Sunscreen Ingredients 363

15.7.3 Photoprotection Boosting Technologies to Optimize Product Efficacy and Consumer Acceptance 365

15.7.4 Product Forms 367

15.7.5 Formulation of Sunscreens 369

15.8 After-Sun Products 370

15.8.1 Sunburn 370

15.8.2 Skin Care after Sun Exposure 370

15.9 Typical Quality Problems of Sun Care Products 371

15.9.1 Valve Clogging 371

15.10 Evaluation of Sun Care Products 371

15.10.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 371

15.10.2 Performance (Efficacy) Parameters Generally Tested 378

15.11 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 380

15.11.1 Skin Absorption of Organic UV Filters 380

15.11.2 Photoirritation from Organic UV Filters 380

15.11.3 Coral Bleaching 381

15.11.4 Nanoparticles in Sunscreens 381

15.12 Packaging of Sun Care Products 382

Glossary of Terms 383

Abbreviations 385

References 385

Part 3 Hair Care Products 393

16 Hair Anatomy And Physiology 395

Learning Objectives 395

Key Concepts 396

16.1 Introduction 396

16.2 Structure and Function of Human Hair 397

16.3 Main Characteristics of Human Hair 400

16.3.1 Hair Growth Cycle and Hair Loss 400

16.3.2 Chemical Composition of Human Hair 402

16.3.3 Physical Properties of Human Hair 405

16.3.4 Hair Types 406

Glossary of Terms 409

Abbreviations 411

References 411

17 Hair Cleansing and Conditioning Products 413

Learning Objectives 413

Key Concepts 414

17.1 Introduction 415

17.2 Types and Definition of Hair Cleansing and Conditioning Products 415

17.3 History of Using Hair Cleansing and Conditioning Products 416

17.4 How Hair Cleaning and Conditioning Products May Affect the Hair and Scalp 416

17.5 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 418

17.6 Hair Cleansing Products 419

17.6.1 Cleansing Basics 419

17.6.2 Typical Ingredients of Shampoos 419

17.6.3 Types and Formulation of Shampoos 422

17.7 Hair Conditioners 426

17.7.1 Conditioning Ingredients of Conditioners 427

17.7.2 Types of and Formulation of Conditioners 428

17.8 Typical Quality Issues of Hair Cleansing and Conditioning Products 430

17.9 Evaluation of Hair Cleansing and Conditioning Products 430

17.9.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 430

17.9.2 Performance (Efficacy) Parameters Generally Tested 430

17.10 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 432

17.10.1 Sulfates and Laureth Sulfates 432

17.11 Packaging of Hair Cleansing and Conditioning Products 433

Glossary of Terms 433

Abbreviations 434

References 434

18 Hair Styling Products Hair Straightening Products and Hair Waving Products 439

Learning Objectives 439

Key Concepts 441

18.1 Introduction 442

18.2 Types and Definition of Hair Styling Hair Straightening and Hair Waving Products 442

18.3 History of Using Hair Styling Hair Waving and Hair Straightening Products 443

18.4 How Hair Styling Products and Procedures May Affect the Hair and Scalp 444

18.5 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 446

18.6 Hair Styling Products 447

18.6.1 Polymer-Based Hair Styling Products 447

18.6.2 Emollient-Based Hair Styling Products 450

18.7 Hair Styling Procedures 452

18.7.1 Temporary Hair Curling and Straightening Tools 452

18.7.2 Permanent Hair Waving and Straightening Procedures 454

18.8 Typical Quality Issues of Hair Styling Hair Waving and Hair Straightening Products 460

18.8.1 Valve Clogging 460

18.8.2 Poor Foaming of Hair Mousses 461

18.8.3 Unstable Foam 461

18.9 Evaluation of Hair Styling Hair Waving and Hair Straightening Products 461

18.9.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 461

18.9.2 Performance Parameters of Hair Styling Products Generally Tested 461

18.9.3 Performance Parameters of Permanent Waving Products Generally Tested 464

18.10 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 465

18.10.1 Volatile Organic Compounds 465

18.10.2 Inhalation of Aerosol Droplets 466

18.10.3 Thioglycolates 466

18.10.4 Hydroxides 467

18.10.5 Formaldehyde 467

18.11 Packaging of Hair Styling Hair Waving and Hair Straightening Products 468

Glossary of Terms 468

Abbreviations 470

References 470

19 Hair Coloring Products 475

Learning Objectives 475

Key Concepts 476

19.1 Introduction 477

19.2 Types and Definition of Hair Coloring Products 477

19.3 History of Using Hair Coloring Products 478

19.4 How Hair Coloring Products May Affect the Scalp and Hair 479

19.5 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 481

19.6 Current US Regulation of Hair Dyes 481

19.7 Types Typical Ingredients and Formulation of Hair Coloring Products 482

19.7.1 Non-Oxidative Products 482

19.7.2 Oxidative Products 486

19.7.3 Formulation of Hair Coloring Products 489

19.8 Typical Quality Issues of Hair Coloring Products 489

19.9 Evaluation of Hair Coloring Products 490

19.9.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 490

19.9.2 Efficacy (Performance) Parameters Generally Tested 490

19.10 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 490

19.10.1 Oxidative Hair Dyes 490

19.10.2 Lead Acetate 492

19.11 Packaging of Hair Coloring Products 492

Glossary of terms 492

Abbreviations 494

References 494

Part 4 Color Cosmetics 497

20 Lip Makeup Products 499

Learning Objectives 499

Key Concepts 500

20.1 Introduction 501

20.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Human Lips 501

20.3 History of Using Lip Makeup Products 503

20.4 Types and Definition of Lip Makeup Products 504

20.5 How Lip Makeup Products May Affect the Lips 505

20.6 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 506

20.7 Typical Ingredients of Lip Makeup Products 506

20.8 Common Types of Lip Makeup Products 509

20.9 Formulation of Lip Makeup Products 511

20.9.1 Molding 511

20.9.2 Additional Methods 513

20.10 Typical Quality Issues of Lip Makeup Products 515

20.10.1 Aeration 515

20.10.2 Laddering 516

20.10.3 Chipping or Cracking 516

20.10.4 Deformation 516

20.10.5 Cratering 516

20.10.6 Streaking 516

20.10.7 Sweating 516

20.10.8 Mushy Failure 517

20.10.9 Seams 517

20.10.10 Bleeding 517

20.10.11 Poor Payoff 517

20.11 Evaluation of Lip Makeup Products 517

20.11.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 517

20.11.2 Performance (Efficacy) Parameters Generally Tested 519

20.12 Ingredient Causing Safety Concerns 519

20.12.1 Lead Content 519

20.13 Packaging of Lip Makeup Products 520

Glossary of Terms 520

Abbreviations 522

References 522

21 Eye Makeup Products 525

Learning Objectives 525

Key Concepts 526

21.1 Introduction 527

21.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Human Eyelids and Eyelashes 527

21.3 History of Using Eye Makeup Products 528

21.4 Types and Definition of Eye Makeup Products 529

21.5 How Eye Makeup Products May Affect the Eye Area 530

21.6 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 532

21.7 Typical Ingredients and Formulation of Eye Makeup Products 533

21.7.1 Mascara 533

21.7.2 Eyeliner 537

21.7.3 Eyebrow Liner 537

21.7.4 Eyeshadow 538

21.7.5 Eye Makeup Removers 540

21.8 Typical Quality Issues of Eye Makeup Products 541

21.8.1 Breaking 541

21.8.2 Sticking 542

21.8.3 Smudging 542

21.8.4 Drying up 542

21.9 Evaluation of Eye Makeup Products 543

21.9.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 543

21.10 Safety Testing of Eye Cosmetics 547

21.11 Packaging of Eye Makeup Products 548

Glossary of Terms 549

Abbreviations 550

References 550

22 Facial Makeup Products 553

Learning Objectives 553

Key Concepts 554

22.1 Introduction 555

22.2 Types and Definition of Facial Makeup Products 555

22.3 History of Using Facial Makeup Products 556

22.4 How Facial Makeup Products May Affect the Skin 557

22.5 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 559

22.6 Typical Ingredients and Formulation of Facial Makeup Products 559

22.6.1 Powder Makeup Products for the Face 560

22.6.2 Liquid and Semisolid Makeup Products for the Face 563

22.6.3 Other Facial Makeup Products 566

22.7 Typical Quality Issues of Facial Makeup Products 567

22.8 Evaluation of Facial Makeup Products 568

22.8.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 568

22.9 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 568

22.9.1 Talc 568

22.10 Packaging of Facial Makeup Products 570

Glossary of Terms 570

Abbreviations 571

References 571

23 Nail Care Products 575

Learning Objectives 575

Key Concepts 576

23.1 Introduction 577

23.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Human Nails 577

23.3 History of Using Nail Care Products 579

23.4 Types and Definition of Nail Care Products 580

23.5 How Nail Care Products May Affect the Human Nails 581

23.6 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 583

23.7 Functional Nail Care Products 583

23.7.1 Nail Hardeners 583

23.7.2 Nail Moisturizers 584

23.7.3 Chemical Cuticle Removers 585

23.8 Decorative Nail Care Products 585

23.8.1 Nail Polish 585

23.8.2 Artificial Nail Products 590

23.9 Nail Polish Removers 593

23.9.1 Ingredients 593

23.9.2 Types of Nail Polish Removers 593

23.10 Typical Quality Issues of Nail Care Products 594

23.10.1 Bubbling 594

23.10.2 Cracking 594

23.10.3 Chipping 595

23.10.4 Thickening 595

23.11 Evaluation of Nail Care Products 595

23.11.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 595

23.12 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 598

23.12.1 Toluene 599

23.12.2 Phthalates 599

23.12.3 Methylene Glycol (“Formaldehyde”) 600

23.12.4 UV Nail Lamps 600

23.13 Packaging of Nail Care Products 600

Glossary of Terms 601

Abbreviations 602

References 602

Part 5 Additional Personal Care Products 607

24 Oral and Dental Care Products 609

Learning Objectives 609

Key Concepts 610

24.1 Introduction 611

24.2 Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Oral Cavity 612

24.3 Review of the Most Common Oral and Dental Care Problems 613

24.4 History of Using Oral and Dental Care Products 617

24.5 Types and Definition of Oral and Dental Care Products 618

24.6 How Oral and Dental Care Products May Affect the Teeth and the Oral Cavity 619

24.7 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 620

24.8 Typical Ingredients and Formulation of Oral and Dental Care Products 621

24.8.1 Toothpaste 621

24.8.2 Mouthwash 630

24.8.3 Other Products 633

24.8.4 Tooth Powders 634

24.8.5 Dental Floss 634

24.9 Typical Quality Issues of Oral and Dental Care Products 635

24.9.1 Hardening 635

24.9.2 Inappropriate Viscosity 635

24.9.3 Grittiness 636

24.9.4 Cloudy Solution 636

24.10 Evaluation of Dental and Oral Care Products 636

24.10.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 636

24.10.2 Efficacy (Performance) Parameters Generally Tested 636

24.11 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 637

24.11.1 Fluoride 638

24.11.2 Hydrogen Peroxide 639

24.12 Packaging of Dental and Oral Care Products 639

Glossary of Terms 640

Abbreviations 641

References 642

25 Hair Removal Products 647

Learning Objectives 647

Key Concepts 648

25.1 Introduction 649

25.2 Review of the Structure and Function of Human Hair 649

25.3 History of Using Hair Removal Methods 651

25.4 Possible Methods for Removing Hair 652

25.4.1 Temporary Methods 653

25.4.2 Permanent Methods 655

25.5 Types and Definition of Hair Removal Products 656

25.6 How Hair Removal Products May Affect the Skin and Hair 657

25.7 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 659

25.8 Types Typical Ingredients and Formulation of Hair Removal Products 660

25.8.1 Pretreatment Products 660

25.8.2 Shaving Products 661

25.8.3 Chemical Depilatories 666

25.8.4 Waxes 668

25.8.5 Aftertreatment Products 670

25.9 Typical Quality Issues of Hair Removal Products 671

25.9.1 Brittle Wax 671

25.10 Evaluation of Hair Removal Products 671

25.10.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 671

25.10.2 Efficacy (Performance) Parameters Generally Tested 672

25.11 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 672

25.11.1 Thioglycolates 672

25.11.2 Volatile Organic Compounds 672

25.12 Packaging of Hair Removal Products 673

Glossary of Terms 673

Abbreviations 674

References 674

26 Deodorants and Antiperspirants 677

Learning Objectives 677

Key Concepts 678

26.1 Introduction 679

26.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Human Sweat Glands 679

26.3 Types and Definition of Products Reducing Body Odor 682

26.4 History of Using Deodorants and Antiperspirants 683

26.5 How Deodorants and Antiperspirants May Affect the Human Skin and Body 684

26.6 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 685

26.7 The Mechanism of Action of Deodorant and Antiperspirant Ingredients 685

26.8 Most Common Product Forms of Deodorants and Antiperspirants 687

26.8.1 Roll-Ons 688

26.8.2 Solid Sticks 688

26.8.3 Extrudable Clear Gels 689

26.8.4 Extrudable Soft Solids 689

26.8.5 Aerosols 690

26.9 Formulation of Deodorant and Antiperspirant Products 691

26.10 Typical Quality Issues of Deodorants and Antiperspirants 692

26.10.1 Shrinkage of Extrudable Gels 692

26.10.2 Caking of Aerosols 692

26.10.3 Valve Clogging 693

26.10.4 Staining and Fabric Damage 693

26.10.5 Poor Pay-Off 693

26.11 Evaluation of Deodorants and Antiperspirants 694

26.11.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 694

26.11.2 Efficacy (Performance) Parameters Generally Tested 695

26.12 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 696

26.12.1 Aluminum 697

26.12.2 Zirconium 698

26.12.3 Volatile Organic Compounds 698

26.13 Packaging of Deodorants and Antiperspirants 698

Glossary of Terms 699

Abbreviations 700

References 700

27 Baby Care Products 705

Learning Objectives 705

Key Concepts 706

27.1 Introduction 707

27.2 Anatomical and Physiological Differences Between Baby and Adult Skin and Hair 707

27.2.1 Skin 708

27.2.2 Hair 709

27.2.3 Other Areas 709

27.3 Types and Definition of Baby Care Products 710

27.4 History of Using Baby Care Products 711

27.5 How Baby Care Products May Affect Baby Skin Hair and Eyes 711

27.6 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 714

27.7 Types Typical Ingredients and Formulation of Baby Care Products 714

27.7.1 Formulation Considerations 714

27.7.2 Cleansing Products for Babies 715

27.7.3 Protecting Products for Babies 718

27.8 Typical Quality Issues of Baby Care Products 722

27.9 Evaluation of Baby Care Products 722

27.9.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 722

27.9.2 Performance (Efficacy) Parameters Generally Tested 723

27.10 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 723

27.10.1 Talc 723

27.11 Packaging of Baby Care Products 724

Glossary of Terms 725

Abbreviations 725

References 726

28 Feminine Hygiene Products 731

Learning Objectives 731

Key Concepts 732

28.1 Introduction 733

28.2 Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Genital Area 733

28.2.1 Vulva 734

28.2.2 Vagina 734

28.3 Types and Definition of Feminine Hygiene Products 736

28.4 History of Using Feminine Hygiene Products 738

28.5 How Feminine Hygiene Products May Affect the Human Body and Female Genital Area 739

28.6 Required Qualities and Characteristics and Consumer Needs 741

28.7 Types Typical Ingredients and Formulation of Feminine Hygiene Products 741

28.7.1 Cleansing and Deodorizing Products 741

28.7.2 Feminine Moisturizers and Lubricants 744

28.7.3 Topical Anti-Itch and Antifungal Medications 747

28.8 Typical Quality Issues of Feminine Hygiene Products 748

28.8.1 Abnormal Shape of Vaginal Suppositories 748

28.9 Evaluation of Feminine Hygiene Products 748

28.9.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 748

28.9.2 Performance (Efficacy) Parameters Generally Tested 749

28.10 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 749

28.10.1 Talc 749

28.10.2 Lubricants’ Effect on the Lactobacillus Species 750

28.11 Packaging of Feminine Hygiene Products 750

Glossary of Terms 751

Abbreviations 752

References 752

29 Sunless Tanning Products 757

Learning Objectives 757

Key Concepts 758

29.1 Introduction 758

29.2 Types and Definition of Sunless Tanning Products 759

29.3 History of Using Sunless Tanning Products 759

29.4 How Sunless Tanners May Affect the Human Body 760

29.5 Required Characteristics and Consumer Needs 762

29.6 Types and Typical Ingredients of Sunless Tanning Products 762

29.6.1 Tanning Ingredients 762

29.6.2 Main Product Forms 764

29.7 Formulation Considerations 765

29.8 Typical Quality Problems of Sunless Tanners 767

29.8.1 Discoloration and Malodor Formation 767

29.9 Evaluation of Sunless Tanners 767

29.9.1 Quality Parameters Generally Tested 767

29.9.2 Performance Evaluation 767

29.10 Ingredients Causing Safety Concerns 768

29.10.1 DHA 768

29.11 Packaging of Sunless Tanning Products 769

Glossary of Terms 769

Abbreviations 770

References 770

Index 773

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