Introduction to Environmental Toxicology: Impacts of Chemicals Upon Ecological Systems, Third Edition

by Landis, Wayne G.

• ISBN13: 9781566706605
• ISBN10: 1566706602
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-12-29
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

The rapidly evolving field of environmental toxicology involves the study of toxic compounds and their effect on living organisms, as well as their fate within the natural environment. Since publication of the first edition, Introduction to Environmental Toxicology has found a secure place among the major texts and references in this field.Introduction to Environmental Toxicology, Third Edition seamlessly covers processes and impacts from the molecular level all the way up to population levels. While retaining the strengths of previous editions, the third edition includes a new chapter on fluoride, an update on endocrine disruption, a discussion of the use of models to reconstruct concentration-response curves, expansion of the metals chapter, and new developments in ecological risk assessment for management decisions at site to regional scales. It is an ideal text for introducing students to the fields of ecotoxicology and risk assessment.

Table of Contents

1 Introduction to Environmental Toxicology and Its Role in Environmental Decision Making	1	(14)
1.1 Environmental Toxicology as an Interdisciplinary Science	1	(1)
1.2 A Brief History of and Organizations in Environmental Toxicology	2	(1)
1.3 Interactions and Connections of Environmental Toxicology to the Management of Ecological Systems	3	(5)
1.3.1 Research Programs	5	(1)
1.3.2 Scientific Community	5	(1)
1.3.3 Ecological Risk Assessment	6	(1)
1.3.4 Governmental and Regulatory Agencies	6	(1)
1.3.5 Industry	7	(1)
1.3.6 General Public	8	(1)
1.4 Legislation	8	(2)
1.5 Use of Models in Environmental Science	10	(1)
1.6 Introduction to the Textbook	11	(3)
References	14	(1)
Study Questions	14	(1)
2 A Framework for Environmental Toxicology	15	(16)
2.1 Classical Viewpoint for Classifying Toxicological Effects	15	(7)
2.1.1 Chemical/Physical-Chemical Characteristics	16	(1)
2.1.2 Bioaccumulation/Biotransformation/Biodegradation	17	(1)
2.1.3 Receptor and the Mode of Action	18	(1)
2.1.4 Biochemical and Molecular Effects	18	(1)
2.1.5 Physiological and Behavioral Effects	19	(1)
2.1.6 Population Parameters	20	(1)
2.1.7 Community Effects	20	(1)
2.1.8 Ecosystem Effects	21	(1)
2.2 Alternative Framework Incorporating Complexity Theory	22	(1)
2.3 Spatial and Temporal Scales	23	(2)
2.4 Combining Scale and Ecological Dynamics: The Hierarchical Patch Dynamic Paradigm	25	(3)
References and Suggested Readings	28	(1)
Study Questions	28	(3)
3 An Introduction to Toxicity Testing	31	(42)
3.1 The Dose-Response Curve	32	(9)
3.1.1 Thresholds and Hormesis	40	(1)
3.2 Standard Methods	41	(1)
3.2.1 Advantages of standard Methods	41	(1)
3.2.2 Disadvantages of standard Methods	42	(1)
3.3 Classification of Toxicity Tests	42	(2)
3.4 Design Parameters for single-Species Toxicity Tests	44	(6)
3.4.1 Exposure Scenarios	45	(2)
3.4.2 Test Organisms	47	(2)
3.4.3 Comparison of Test Species	49	(1)
3.4.4 Statistical Design Parameters	49	(1)
3.5 Overview of Available Statistical Methods for the Evaluation of Single-Species Toxicity Tests	50	(10)
3.5.1 Commonly Used Methods for the Calculation of Endpoints	50	(2)
3.5.2 Comparison of Calculations of Several Programs for Calculating Probit Analysis	52	(1)
3.5.3 Hypothesis Testing	53	(2)
3.5.4 Curve Fitting and Regression Modeling vs. Hypothesis Testing	55	(5)
3.6 The Design of Multispecies Toxicity Tests	60	(6)
3.6.1 The Nature of Multispecies Toxicity Tests	60	(2)
3.6.2 Data Analysis and Interpretation of Multispecies Toxicity Tests	62	(1)
3.6.3 Univariate Methods	62	(1)
3.6.4 Multivariate Methods	63	(2)
3.6.5 Visualization	65	(1)
3.7 Summary of Design Guidelines for Multispecies Toxicity Tests	66	(1)
3.7.1 Basic Principles	66	(1)
3.7.2 Experimental Design	66	(1)
3.7.3 Data Analysis	67	(1)
References and suggested Readings	67	(3)
Study Questions	70	(3)
4 Survey and Review of Typical Toxicity Test Methods	73	(42)
4.1 Single-Species Toxicity Tests	74	(17)
4.1.1 Daphnia 48-h Acute Toxicity Test	74	(3)
4.1.2 Algal 96-h Growth Toxicity Test	77	(2)
4.1.3 Acute Toxicity Tests with Aquatic Vertebrates and Macroinvertebrates	79	(4)
4.1.4 Terrestrial Vertebrate Toxicity Tests	83	(6)
4.1.5 Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay: FETAX	89	(2)
4.2 Animal Care and Use Considerations	91	(1)
4.3 Multispecies Toxicity Tests	92	(10)
4.3.1 Standardized Aquatic Microcosm	94	(3)
4.3.2 Mixed Flask Culture	97	(1)
4.3.3 FIFRA Microcosm	97	(4)
4.3.4 Soil Core Microcosm	101	(1)
Summary	102	(1)
References and suggested Readings	102	(3)
Study Questions	105	(1)
Appendix: The Natural History and Utilization of Selected Test Species	106	(9)
Aquatic Vertebrates	106	(1)
Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)	106	(1)
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)	106	(1)
Brook trout (Salvelins fontinalis)	107	(1)
Goldfish (Carassius auratus)	107	(1)
Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas)	107	(1)
Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)	108	(1)
Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)	108	(1)
Green Sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus)	108	(1)
Invertebrates - Freshwater	109	(1)
Daphnids (Daphnia magna, D. pulex, D. pulicaria, Ceriodaphnia dubia)	109	(1)
Amphipods (Gammarus lacustres, G. fasciatus, G. pseudolimnaeus, Hyalella azteca)	109	(1)
Crayfish (Orconectes sp., Combarus sp., Procambarus sp., Pacifastacus leniusculus)	110	(1)
Stoneflies (Pteronarcys sp.)	110	(1)
Mayflies (Baens sp., Ephemerella sp., Hexagenia limbata, H. bilineata)	111	(1)
Midges (Chironomus sp.)	111	(1)
Snails (Physa integra, P. heterostropha, Amnicola limosa): (Mollusca, Gastropoda)	112	(1)
Planaria (Dugesia tigrina): (Platyhelminthes, Turbellaria)	112	(1)
Invertebrates - Saltwater	112	(1)
Copepods (Acartia clause, Acartia tonsa)	112	(1)
Algae	113	(1)
Chlamydomonas reinhardi	113	(1)
Ulothrix sp	113	(1)
Microcystic aeruginosa	113	(1)
Anabaena floc-aquae	113	(1)
Avian species	113	(1)
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)	113	(1)
Northern bobwhite (Col-inus Virginian us)	114	(1)
Ring-necked pheasant (Pliasianus colchicus)	114	(1)
5 Routes of Exposure and Modes of Action	115	(44)
5.1 The Damage Process	115	(1)
5.2 Atmospheric Pollutants and Plants	115	(4)
5.2.1 Plant Injury	116	(1)
5.2.2 Vertebrates	117	(2)
5.2.2.1 Exposure	117	(1)
5.2.2.2 Uptake	117	(1)
5.2.2.3 Transport	118	(1)
5.2.2.4 Storage	119	(1)
5.2.2.5 Metabolism	119	(1)
5.2.2.6 Excretion	119	(1)
5.3 Mechanisms of Action	119	(7)
5.3.1 Disruption or Destruction of Cellular Structure	120	(1)
5.3.2 Direct Chemical Combination With a Cellular Constituent	120	(1)
5.3.3 Effect on Enzymes	121	(1)
5.3.4 Secondary Action as a Result of the Presence of a Pollutant	122	(4)
5.3.5 Metal Shift	126	(1)
5.4 Common Modes of Action in Detail	126	(8)
5.4.1 Narcosis	126	(1)
5.4.2 Organophosphates	127	(3)
5.4.3 Monohaloacetic Acids	130	(4)
5.5 Introduction to QSAR	134	(8)
5.5.1 Construction of QSAR Models	135	(2)
5.5.2 Typical QSAR Model Development	137	(3)
5.5.3 Estimation of Toxicity Using QSAR	140	(2)
5.6 Receptor-Mediated Toxicity, Endocrine Disruption, and a Mechanistic SAR Analysis of PCB Toxicity	142	(13)
5.6.1 Specificity of the Hormone-Receptor Interaction	145	(5)
5.6.2 Range of Chemicals That Cause Endocrine Disruption	150	(5)
References and Suggested Readings	155	(2)
Study Questions	157	(2)
6 Factors Modifying the Activity of Toxicants	159	(24)
6.1 Introduction	159	(1)
6.2 Physicochemical Properties of Pollutants	159	(1)
6.2.1 Time and Mode of Exposure	160	(1)
6.3 Environmental Factors	160	(1)
6.3.1 Temperature	160	(1)
6.3.2 Humidity	161	(1)
6.3.3 Light Intensity	161	(1)
6.4 Interaction of Pollutants	161	(2)
6.4.1 Synergism and Potentiation	161	(1)
6.4.2 Antagonism	162	(1)
6.5 Toxicity of Mixtures	163	(3)
6.6 Mixture Estimation system	166	(1)
6.7 Estimating the Toxicity of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons	167	(2)
6.8 Biological Factors Affecting Toxicity	169	(10)
6.8.1 Plants	169	(1)
6.8.2 Animals	170	(13)
6.8.2.1 Genetic Factors	170	(1)
6.8.2.2 Developmental Factors	170	(1)
6.8.2.3 Diseases	171	(1)
6.8.2.4 Behavioral Factors	171	(1)
6.8.2.5 Sex Variation	171	(1)
6.8.2.6 Nutritional Factors	172	(1)
6.8.2.7 Fasting/Starvation	172	(1)
6.8.2.8 Proteins	172	(1)
6.8.2.9 Carbohydrates	173	(1)
6.8.2.10 Lipids	174	(1)
6.8.2.11 Vitamin A	175	(1)
6.8.2.12 Vitamin D	175	(1)
6.8.2.13 Vitamin E	176	(1)
6.8.2.14 Vitamin C	176	(2)
6.8.2.15 Minerals	178	(1)
References and Suggested Readings	179	(1)
Study Questions	180	(3)
7 Inorganic Gaseous Pollutants	183	(20)
7.1 Sulfur Oxides	183	(5)
7.1.1 Sources of SO2	183	(1)
7.1.2 Characteristics of SO2	184	(1)
7.1.3 Effects on Plants	184	(2)
7.1.4 Effect on Animals	186	(1)
7.1.5 Effect on Humans	187	(1)
7.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)	188	(3)
7.2.1 Forms and Formation of Nitrogen Oxides	188	(1)
7.2.2 Major Reactive N Species in the Troposphere	188	(1)
7.2.3 Effects on Plants	189	(1)
7.2.4 Effects on Humans and Animals	190	(1)
7.2.4.1 Physiological Effects	190	(1)
7.2.4.2 Biochemical Effects	191	(1)
7.3 Ozone	191	(6)
7.3.1 Sources	191	(1)
7.3.2 Photochemical smog	192	(1)
7.3.3 Effects on Plants	193	(1)
7.3.4 Effects on Humans and Animals	194	(1)
7.3.5 Biochemical Effects	195	(1)
7.3.6 NADPH	196	(1)
7.4 Carbon Monoxide	197	(3)
7.4.1 Formation of CO	197	(1)
7.4.2 Toxicological Effects	198	(1)
7.4.3 Mechanism of Action	199	(1)
7.4.4 Human Exposure to CO	199	(1)
References and Suggested Readings	200	(2)
Study Questions	202	(1)
8 Fluoride as a Contaminant of Developing Economies	203	(16)
8.1 Environmental Sources and Forms of Fluoride	203	(1)
8.1.1 Minerals and Soils	203	(1)
8.1.2 Natural Waters	203	(1)
8.1.3 Foods	203	(1)
8.1.4 Air	204	(1)
8.2 Industrial Sources of Fluoride Pollution	204	(3)
8.3 Effects on Plants	207	(2)
8.3.1 Injuries to Leaf Tissues	207	(1)
8.3.2 Effect on Germination	208	(1)
8.3.3 Biochemical Effect	209	(1)
8.4 Effect on Animals	209	(3)
8.4.1 Acute Effects	209	(1)
8.4.2 Chronic Effects	210	(2)
8.5 Effects on Human Health	212	(1)
8.5.1 Daily Intake	212	(1)
8.5.2 Absorption	212	(1)
8.5.3 Acute Toxicity	213	(1)
8.5.4 Chronic Toxicity	213	(1)
8.6 Biochemical Effect	213	(2)
References and Suggested Readings	215	(2)
Study Questions	217	(2)
9 Heavy Metals	219	(16)
9.1 Lead	219	(5)
9.1.1 Properties and Uses	220	(1)
9.1.2 Exposure	220	(1)
9.1.2.1 Atmospheric Lead	220	(1)
9.1.2.2 Water-Borne Lead	220	(1)
9.1.2.3 Lead in Food	220	(1)
9.1.2.4 Lead in soils	221	(1)
9.1.3 Lead Toxicity	221	(2)
9.1.3.1 Effect on Plants	221	(1)
9.1.3.2 Effect on Animals	222	(1)
9.1.3.3 Effect on Humans	222	(1)
9.1.4 Biochemical Effect	223	(1)
9.2 Cadmium	224	(3)
9.2.1 Properties and Uses	224	(1)
9.2.2 Exposure	225	(1)
9.2.3 Cadmium Toxicity	225	(1)
9.2.3.1 Effect on Plant	225	(1)
9.2.3.2 Effects on Animals/Humans	226	(1)
9.2.4 Biochemical Effect	226	(1)
9.3 Mercury	227	(4)
9.3.1 Properties and Uses	227	(1)
9.3.2 Sources of Mercury Pollution	228	(1)
9.3.3 Toxicity	228	(2)
9.4.3.1 Effect on Plants	228	(1)
9.4.3.2 Effect on Animals	228	(1)
9.4.3.3 Terrestrial Animals	229	(1)
9.4.3.4 Effect on Human Health	229	(1)
9.3.4 Biochemical Effect	230	(1)
References and suggested Readings	231	(1)
Study Questions	232	(3)
10 Biotransformation, Detoxification, and Biodegradation	235	(40)
10.1 Introduction	235	(1)
10.2 Metabolism of Environmental Chemicals: Biotransformation	235	(7)
10.2.1 Types of Biotransformation	236	(1)
10.2.2 Mechanisms of Biotransformation	236	(5)
10.2.3 Consequence of Biotransformation	241	(1)
10.3 Microbial Degradation	242	(7)
10.4 Bioremediation	249	(3)
10.5 Isolation and Engineering of Degradative Organisms	252	(3)
10.6 The Genetics of Degradative Elements	255	(1)
10.7 Example of a Detoxification Enzyme - the OPA Anhydrolases	256	(12)
10.7.1 Characteristics of the OPA Gene Product and Other Bacterial OPA Anhydrolases	258	(3)
10.7.2 Eukaryotic OPA Anhydrolases	261	(1)
10.7.3 Characteristics of Other Invertebrate Metazoan Activities	262	(1)
10.7.4 Characteristics of Fish Activities	263	(1)
10.7.5 Comparison of the OPA Anhydrases	264	(1)
10.7.6 Natural Role of the OPA Anhydrases	265	(3)
References and Suggested Readings	268	(4)
Study Questions	272	(3)
11 Measuring and Predicting the Responses of Ecological systems to Toxicants	275	(84)
11.1 Introduction	275	(1)
11.2 Measurement of Ecological Effects at Various Levels of Biological Organization	275	(3)
11.2.1 Bioaccumulation/Biotransformation /Biodegradation	278	(1)
11.3 Molecular and Physiological Indicators of Chemical Stress Biomarkers	278	(8)
11.3.1 Enzymatic and Biochemical Processes	279	(1)
11.3.2 Physiological and Histological Indicators	280	(2)
11.3.3 Toxicity Tests and Population Level Indicators	282	(2)
11.3.4 Sentinel Organisms and In Situ Biomonitoring	284	(2)
11.4 Population Parameters	286	(1)
11.5 Assemblage and Community Parameters	287	(4)
11.6 Interpretation of Effects at the Population, Community and Ecosystem Levels of Organization	291	(32)
11.6.1 Resource Competition as a Model of the Direct and Indirect Effects of Pollutants	291	(4)
11.6.2 Case 1	295	(1)
11.6.3 Case 2	296	(6)
11.6.4 Population Biology, Nonlinear Systems, and Chaos	302	(7)
11.6.5 Age-Structured Population Models	309	(4)
11.6.6 Effects of Toxicants upon Spatially Structured Populations	313	(10)
11.6.6.1 The Spatial Structure of Populations	313	(2)
11.6.6.2 The Use of Metapopulation Models to Investigate Toxicant Effects	315	(8)
11.7 Community and Ecosystem Effects	323	(4)
11.7.1 Similarity Measures	324	(1)
11.7.2 Classification	325	(1)
11.7.3 Clustering	326	(1)
11.8 Application of Multivariate Techniques	327	(12)
11.8.1 Normalized Ecosystem Strain	327	(1)
11.8.2 State Space of Ecosystems	328	(2)
11.8.3 Nonmetric Clustering and Association Analysis	330	(1)
11.8.4 Projections for Visualizing Ecosystem Dynamics	331	(4)
11.8.5 Examples of the Use of Multivariate Methods in Multispecies Toxicity Tests and Field Studies	335	(4)
11.9 Pollution-Induced Community Tolerance	339	(1)
11.10 Interpretation of Ecosystem Level Impacts	340	(4)
11.11 An Alternative Model: the Community Conditioning Hypothesis	344	(3)
11.12 The Problem of the Reference Site	347	(3)
11.12.1 Eulogy for the Reference Site	347	(1)
11.12.2 Gradients	348	(1)
11.12.3 Reference Conditions	349	(1)
11.12.4 Conclusions	350	(1)
References and Suggested Readings	350	(6)
Study Questions	356	(1)
Appendix A Multivariate Techniques - Nonmetric Clustering	357	(2)
12 Ecological Risk Assessment	359	(110)
12.1 Introduction	359	(1)
12.2 Basics of Risk Assessment	360	(1)
12.3 Ecological Risk Assessment	361	(1)
12.4 Ecological Risk Assessment Framework	362	(11)
12.4.1 Problem Formulation	362	(6)
12.4.2 Analysis	368	(1)
12.4.3 Exposure Analysis	368	(2)
12.4.4 Characterization of Ecological Effects	370	(2)
12.4.4.1 Ecological Response Analyses	370	(2)
12.4.4.2 Stressor-Response Profile	372	(1)
12.4.5 Data Acquisition, Verification, and Monitoring	372	(1)
12.5 Risk Characterization	373	(3)
12.5.1 Integration	373	(1)
12.5.2 Risk Description	374	(1)
12.5.3 Interpretation of Ecological Significance	375	(1)
12.5.4 Discussion between the Risk Assessor and Risk Manager	376	(1)
12.5.5 Data Acquisition, Verification, and Monitoring	376	(1)
12.6 Developments in Ecological Risk Assessment	376	(4)
12.6.1 New Methods for Calculating Ecological Risk	377	(1)
12.6.2 The Curve Model	377	(2)
12.6.3 Spatially Distinct Risk Quotients	379	(1)
12.7 A Ranking Approach to Multiple Stressor, Wide-Area Ecological Risk Assessment	380	(11)
12.7.1 A Simple Example	382	(4)
12.7.2 Advantages and Dangers of the Ranking Approach	386	(1)
12.7.3 Establishing Causation and the Weight of Evidence Approach	387	(4)
12.7.3.1 Criteria for Causation	388	(1)
12.7.3.2 Weight of Evidence	389	(2)
12.8 A General Model for Regional Risk Assessment - The Ten steps	391	(5)
12.9 Life-Cycle Assessment as a Decision-Making Tool	396	(2)
References and Suggested Readings	398	(2)
Study Questions	400	(3)
Appendix A References for Toxicity Testing and Interpretation	403	(16)
Appendix B Framework for Ecological Risk Assessment	419	(50)
Index	469