Introduction to Forensic Science and Criminalistics

by Gaensslen, Robert; Harris, Howard; Lee, Henry

• ISBN13: 9780072988482
• ISBN10: 0072988487
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2007-01-23
• Publisher: McGraw-Hill Education

Summary

Written by authors with close to one hundred years of forensic experience combined, this introductory text features comprehensive coverage of the types of forensic work done by crime laboratories for criminal cases and by private examiners for civil cases. The book's unifying vision of the role of forensic science in the justice system and of the role of the professional forensic scientist is clearly introduced in the first two chapters and reinforced throughout the text. Each chapter discusses a key case in the field and references other "real world" applications of the techniques described. The text's premise is that being a scientist is not required for understanding and using forensic science, but that a greater understanding of science lends itself to better use of the techniques of forensic science.

Table of Contents

Introduction	p. 1
Introduction to Forensic Science	p. 3
What Is Forensic Science?	p. 7
Science in the Service of the Law	p. 7
Value of Forensic Science	p. 7
Corpus Delicti-Elements of a Crime	p. 7
Support or Disprove Statements by Witnesses, Victims, or Suspects	p. 8
Identify Substances or Materials	p. 9
Identify Persons	p. 9
Provide Investigative Leads	p. 9
Establish Linkages or Exclusions	p. 10
A Brief History of Forensic Science	p. 10
Development of Forensic Science Laboratories and Professional Organizations	p. 13
Nature of Science and the Scientific Method	p. 15
Careful Observation	p. 16
Make Logical Suppositions to Explain the Observations	p. 16
Hypothesis Testing-Controlled Experiments	p. 16
Refining the Hypothesis-Theories and Natural Laws	p. 17
The Scientific Method and Its Applicability to Forensic Science and to Investigation	p. 18
Forensic Science Specialties	p. 19
Forensic Pathology	p. 19
Forensic Entomology	p. 19
Forensic Odontology	p. 20
Forensic Anthropology	p. 20
Forensic Toxicology	p. 20
Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology	p. 21
Forensic Engineering	p. 22
Forensic Computer Science	p. 22
Forensic/Investigative Technologies	p. 22
Criminalistics	p. 22
Elements of Forensic Evidence Analysis-The Types of Results Forensic Scientists Produce	p. 23
Evidence Recognition	p. 24
Classification (Identification)	p. 25
Individualization	p. 26
Reconstruction	p. 27
Physical Evidence and the Legal System	p. 31
How Physical Evidence Is Produced	p. 33
Changes Induced at a Scene	p. 33
Imprints or Indentations	p. 33
Striations	p. 35
Damage	p. 35
Exchange of Material upon Contact	p. 36
Deposits	p. 36
Classification of Physical Evidence	p. 37
Utilization of Physical Evidence	p. 39
Provide Investigative Leads-Helping Develop MO and Leads from Databases	p. 39
Establish Linkages or Exclusions	p. 40
Corroboration-Credibility-Supporting or Disproving Statements	p. 42
Identification of Persons	p. 42
Identification of Substances or Materials	p. 43
Establishing a Basis for a Crime and Criminal Prosecution-Corpus Delicti	p. 43
The Physical Evidence Process	p. 44
Recognition-Most Critical and Requires a Trained Observer	p. 44
Documentation and Marking for Identification	p. 44
Collection, Packaging, and Preservation	p. 44
Laboratory Analysis	p. 45
Reporting and Testimony	p. 46
Origin of Legal Systems	p. 47
The Criminal Justice System and Process	p. 48
Scientific and Technical Evidence Admissibility and the Expert Witness	p. 52
Crime Scene Procedures, Techniques, and Analysis	p. 57
Crime Scene Processing and Analysis	p. 59
Processing versus Analysis	p. 61
Types of Scenes	p. 62
Initial Actions and Scene Security	p. 62
Steps in Scene Processing and Analysis	p. 64
Scene Survey and Evidence Recognition	p. 64
Scene Searches	p. 64
Documentation	p. 64
Evidence Collection and Preservation	p. 65
Release of the Scene	p. 65
Scene Survey and Evidence Recognition	p. 65
Scene Searches	p. 66
Documentation	p. 67
Notes	p. 67
Sketches	p. 67
Photography	p. 70
Video Recording	p. 74
Duty to Preserve	p. 75
Evidence Collection and Preservation	p. 75
Collection Methods	p. 76
Numbering and Evidence Description Methods	p. 76
Packaging Options	p. 77
Proper Controls and Comparison Standards	p. 78
Laboratory Submission	p. 79
Crime Scene Analysis and Reconstructions	p. 80
Laboratory Analysis and Comparisons of Evidence	p. 80
Medical Examiner's Reports in Death Cases	p. 80
Reconstruction: Putting It All Together	p. 80
Reconstruction versus Reenactment	p. 81
Digital Evidence and Forensic Computer Science	p. 81
Examination and Interpretation of Patterns for Reconstruction	p. 85
Pattern Evidence: Reconstruction Patterns and Individualization Patterns	p. 87
Most Reconstruction Patterns Are Crime Scene Patterns	p. 87
Importance of Documentation of Reconstruction Patterns	p. 87
Blood Spatter Patterns	p. 88
Basis of Blood Pattern Interpretation	p. 88
Velocity and Impact Angle	p. 88
Various Blood Spatter Patterns	p. 90
Factors Affecting Blood Patterns and Their Interpretation	p. 92
Glass Fracture Patterns	p. 94
Determining the Side of the Glass Where Force Was Applied	p. 94
Determining the Order of Gunshots Fired Through Glass	p. 94
Track and Trail Patterns	p. 96
Tire and Skid Mark Patterns	p. 96
Clothing and Article or Object Patterns	p. 97
Gunshot Residue Patterns	p. 97
Projectile Trajectory Patterns	p. 99
Fire Burn Patterns	p. 101
Modus Operandi Patterns and Profiling	p. 101
Wound, Injury, and Damage Patterns	p. 102
Physical Pattern Evidence and Technological Examinations	p. 105
Examination of Physical Pattern Evidence	p. 107
Classification/Types of Physical Patterns for Comparison	p. 109
Physical Matches	p. 109
Impression and Striation Mark	p. 109
Shape and Form	p. 109
General Principles in Physical Pattern Comparisons	p. 110
The Process of Identification	p. 110
Physical Matching	p. 111
Exclusions, Inconclusives, and Insufficient Detail	p. 112
Physical Pattern Comparisons and the Daubert Criteria	p. 113
Impression and Striation Mark Comparisons	p. 113
Impressions: Imprints and Indentations	p. 113
Striations	p. 114
Collection and Preservation of Impressions	p. 114
Footwear, Tire, and Other Impressions	p. 116
Clarification and Contrast Improvement Techniques	p. 117
Weapon, Tool, and Object Marks	p. 118
Shape and Form Comparisons	p. 119
Other Patterns	p. 119
Concluding Comments	p. 119
Fingerprints and Other Personal Identification Patterns	p. 123
Fingerprints-An Old and Traditionally Valuable Type of Evidence	p. 125
About Fingerprints-Their Nature and the History and Development of Their Use	p. 126
Nature of Fingerprints	p. 126
History and Development of the Use of Fingerprints	p. 127
Fingerprint Classification, Management of Large Files, AFISs	p. 128
Classification and Large Files	p. 129
Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFISs)	p. 130
Collection and Preservation of Fingerprint Evidence	p. 132
Latent Prints and Their Development	p. 132
Types of Evidentiary Fingerprints	p. 132
Development of Latent Fingerprints	p. 133
Fingerprint Comparison and Identification	p. 141
The Fingerprint Identification Profession	p. 142
Other Patterns for Person Identification	p. 143
Palm and Sole Prints	p. 143
Bite Marks	p. 144
Skeletal Features	p. 145
Lip and Ear Prints	p. 145
Voice Identification	p. 145
Biometrics	p. 146
Identification of Human Remains-Handling of Mass Disasters	p. 146
Questioned Document Examination	p. 151
Types of Document Evidence	p. 153
Development of Handwriting	p. 155
Writing Process	p. 156
Recognition, Collection, and Preservation of Document Evidence	p. 159
Handwriting Comparison	p. 161
Class and Individual Characteristics	p. 162
Importance of Known Standards	p. 163
Writing Mechanics	p. 164
Handprinting	p. 165
Legal Status of Underlying Science	p. 165
Nonhandwriting Document Examinations	p. 165
Typewriter and Printer Comparisons	p. 165
Copying Machines	p. 167
Reconstruction of Document Events	p. 167
Alterations and Erasures	p. 168
Charred Documents and Indented Writing	p. 170
Age Determination	p. 172
Toolmarks and Firearms	p. 177
Toolmark-Definition	p. 179
Class and Individual Characteristics	p. 179
Residue from Softer Object on Tool	p. 179
Types of Toolmarks	p. 180
Collection of Toolmarks	p. 180
Examination and Comparison of Toolmarks	p. 181
Firearms Examination-Background	p. 182
Firearms Function-the Firing Train	p. 183
Types of Firearms	p. 187
Collection and Preservation of Firearms Evidence	p. 192
Firearms Evidence Examination and Comparison	p. 193
Physical Examination of Firearm for Safety and Physical Condition	p. 193
Test for Functionality and to Obtain Control Bullets and Cases	p. 194
Bullet and Cartridge or Shotshell Case Comparisons-the Comparison Microscope	p. 195
Association of Cartridges or Bullets to Firearm or Maker Using Databases	p. 198
Comparison of Badly Damaged Projectiles or Cases	p. 198
Use of Firearms Evidence for Reconstruction	p. 198
Recovered Firearm and Fired Evidence in Reconstruction	p. 198
Muzzle to Target Distance-Powder Pattern	p. 199
GSR on Hands-Dermal Nitrate, Lift, Swab, Tape	p. 199
Serial Number Restoration	p. 202
Serial Number Obliteration Methods-Defacing	p. 203
Recovery of Serial Number-Clean, Smooth, Etch	p. 204
The Firearms and Toolmark Examiner Profession	p. 205
Biological Evidence	p. 209
Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination	p. 211
How Biological Evidence Analysis Has Changed Because of DNA Typing	p. 213
Nature of Blood	p. 214
Collection, Preservation, and Packaging of Biological (Including Blood) Evidence	p. 215
Blood or Buccal Swab from Known Person	p. 216
Biological Evidence from Scenes	p. 216
Test Controls, Substratum Comparison Specimens, and Contamination Issues	p. 218
Know (Exemplar or Reference) Controls	p. 218
Alibi (Alternative) Known Control	p. 218
Blank Control	p. 218
Substratum Comparison Specimens	p. 218
Initial Examination of and for Biological Evidence	p. 220
Forensic Identification of Blood	p. 221
Preliminary or Presumptive Tests for Blood	p. 222
Confirmatory Tests for Blood	p. 222
Species Determination	p. 223
Forensic Identification of Body Fluids	p. 224
Identification of Semen	p. 225
Identification of Vaginal "Secretions," Saliva, and Urine	p. 227
Forensic Investigation of Sexual Assault Cases	p. 227
Coordination of Effort-SANEs and SARTs	p. 228
Initial Investigation	p. 228
The Forensic Scientist's Role	p. 229
Medical Examination	p. 229
Evidence Collection and Sexual Assault Evidence Collection Kits	p. 230
Types of Sexual Assault Cases and Their Investigation	p. 231
Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault-"Date-Rape" Drugs	p. 232
Blood and Body Fluid Individuality: Traditional (pre-DNA) Approaches	p. 233
The Classical or Conventional (pre-DNA) Genetic Markers	p. 233
How Does Typing Genetic Markers Help "Individualize" a Biological Specimen?	p. 234
DNA Analysis and Typing	p. 241
Genetics, Inheritance, Genetic Markers	p. 243
DNA-Nature and Functions	p. 243
Where DNA Is Found in the Body-Nuclear (Genomic) and Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)	p. 247
Collection and Preservation of Biological Evidence for DNA Typing	p. 249
Development and Methods of DNA Analysis	p. 250
Isolation (Extraction) of DNA	p. 250
The Beginning-RFLP	p. 251
The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-The First PCR-Based DNA Typing Methods	p. 253
Current DNA Typing Methods-Short Tandem Repeats (STRs)	p. 254
The Power of DNA to Individualize Biological Evidence	p. 256
Databasing and CODIS	p. 258
Applications of Forensic DNA Typing	p. 260
Newer DNA Technologies	p. 264
Strengths, Limitations, Promise, Hype	p. 265
Chemical and Materials Evidence	p. 271
Arson and Explosives	p. 273
Fire and Arson	p. 275
The Combustion Reaction-Flaming Combustion and Glowing Combustion	p. 275
Necessary Components for Combustion-Fuel, Oxygen, and Ignition	p. 275
Nature of Fuels-Gaseous, Liquid, and Solid	p. 276
Characteristics of Fuels-Measures of Combustibility	p. 278
Investigating Suspicious Fires-Arsonists' Motives	p. 281
Economic Motives	p. 281
Revenge, Vandalism, Intimidation, and Other Motives	p. 282
Investigation of Fire Scenes	p. 283
Burn Patterns	p. 283
Search for Point or Points of Origin	p. 283
Search for Causes	p. 283
Recovery of Ignitable Liquid Residues from Suspicious Fire Scenes	p. 283
Reasons for Finding Accelerant Residues	p. 283
Search for Places to Collect Debris-Sniffers and Arson Dogs	p. 284
Collection of Debris Samples and Proper Packaging	p. 284
Collection of Samples Other Than Debris	p. 285
Collection of Other Physical Evidence	p. 285
Laboratory Analysis of Debris and Other Samples-Recovery of Ignitable Liquid Residues	p. 286
Preparation of Liquid Samples	p. 286
Four Primary Techniques for Preparation of Debris Samples	p. 286
Laboratory Examination of Prepared Samples	p. 289
Examination of Criminalistics Evidence Collected	p. 294
Explosives and Explosion Incidents	p. 295
Characteristics of Explosives and Explosions	p. 296
Exothermic	p. 296
Molecular Fragmentation to Produce Gaseous Products	p. 296
Rapid Expansion	p. 296
Containment	p. 297
The Three Major Classes of Explosives	p. 297
Low Explosives	p. 297
Primary High Explosives	p. 298
Secondary High Explosives	p. 299
The Explosive Train or Device	p. 300
The Role of the Scene Investigator	p. 301
Laboratory Analysis of Explosives and Explosive Residues	p. 302
Examination of the Unexploded Device	p. 302
Examination of the Exploded Device and Associated Debris	p. 303
Examination of the Device or Debris for Other Physical Evidence	p. 305
Drugs and Drug Analysis and Forensic Toxicology	p. 311
Nature of Drugs and Drug Abuse	p. 313
Working Definition of a Drug	p. 313
Nature of Drug Dependence	p. 314
Drugs and Society-Controlled Substances	p. 315
Major Classes of Abused Drugs	p. 315
Opiates or Narcotic Drugs	p. 316
Stimulants	p. 317
Hallucinogens	p. 318
Depressants, Hypnotics, and Tranquilizers	p. 321
Club Drugs	p. 322
Athletic Performance Enhancers	p. 323
Controlled Substance Laws	p. 324
Analysis of Controlled Substances in the Forensic Laboratory	p. 325
Screening Tests	p. 325
Isolation and Separation	p. 326
Microcrystal Tests	p. 327
Chromatography (Separations)	p. 328
Spectroscopy/Spectrometry	p. 329
Qualitative versus Quantitative Analysis	p. 330
Forensic Toxicology-Antimortem and Postmortem	p. 331
Forensic Toxicology on Samples from the Living	p. 331
Postmortem Toxicology	p. 331
Classes of Poisons	p. 332
Alcohol and Drugs and Driving	p. 332
Driving While Impaired by Alcohol	p. 333
Other Drugs and Driving	p. 334
Materials Evidence	p. 339
Introduction to Materials Evidence	p. 341
Transfer Materials Evidence Is Used to Establish or Disprove Connections	p. 342
Materials Evidence Can Be Transferred or Deposited	p. 343
Clothing and Vehicles Are the Most Common Sources of Materials Evidence	p. 343
Collection Methods for Materials Evidence	p. 344
Collection Without Sampling	p. 344
Use of Forceps-Always the First Approach in the Lab	p. 344
Mechanical Dislocation-Shaking or Scraping of Surface Material	p. 345
Tape Lifts-Sticky but Not Too Sticky	p. 345
Laboratory Examination of Trace and Transfer Evidence	p. 345
Initial Physical Examination-Stereomicroscope, Hand Lens Microscopy	p. 346
Instrumental Comparison and Identification-Micro FTIR and SEM/EDX	p. 347
Materials Evidence Comparisons-Individualization, Inclusion, and Exclusion	p. 349
Some Common Types of Materials Evidence	p. 349
Fibers	p. 350
Biological Materials	p. 350
Wood and Paper	p. 350
Building Materials	p. 351
Metallic Residues	p. 352
Paint and Other Coatings	p. 352
Cosmetics and Beauty Products	p. 352
Soil and Dust	p. 353
Discussion of Major Categories of Materials Evidence	p. 353
Fibers	p. 353
Human and Animal Hair	p. 362
Paint	p. 367
Glass	p. 371
Soil	p. 375
Appendix	p. 385
Glossary	p. 397
Photo Credits	p. 405
Index	p. 406
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