Introduction to Geography : People, Places, and Environment

by Bergman, Edward; Renwick, William H.

• ISBN13: 9780131445451
• ISBN10: 0131445456
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2008-01-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

This book's cover is an aerial photo of a market in the Xochimilco district of Mexico City. This mosaic of brightly colored parasols hides a bustling market that offers fresh fruits arid vegetables, a selection of handmade local products, plus small household items of both local and foreign manufacture. Mexico boasts a vigorous international economy, with exports growing at a rate of 18 percent every year. Nevertheless, economic inequality is growing, and in some areas average earnings are as little as a quarter of the national average. Mexico's participation in the global economy exemplifies the global connections and farces that trigger constant and dynamic change everywhere on Earth. The study of these forces is one of modern geography's central missions. This book develops the idea that modern geography explores and explains the forces behind today's world. The book organizes its coverage around several main themes and ideas: Exploring the forces at work behind constantly evolving maps. In today's interconnected world, what happens at places depends more and more on what happens among places. Therefore, we can understand maps of economic or cultural activity only if we understand the activities and movements that create them. Understanding contemporary issues bar applying geographic concepts. What you read in your geography text and learn in your geography classroom will help you understand current events and form your own well-informed ideas about issues. Each chapter in this book uses the geographic concepts under discussion to help you understand current affairs. Highlighting important spatial relationships with a rich and diverse cartographic program. This book features many different types of maps and cartograms, as well as graphs, charts, and carefully chosen photographs. All are designed to clarify and illustrate the concepts under discussion. The book features contributions to the field made by new techniques in Geographic Information Science. Exploring the relationships between humans and their environment. Earth's physical environment sets the stage upon which humans act out their lives. The theme of human-environmental interaction is woven throughout the book.

Table of Contents

List of Maps	xiii
Preface	xvi
About the Authors	xxiii
Introduction to Geography	2	(42)
What is Geography?	4	(4)
The Development of Geography	4	(4)
Contemporary Approaches in Geography	8	(16)
Area Analysis	9	(7)
Spatial Analysis	16	(5)
Physical and Human Systems	21	(1)
Human-Environmental Interaction	22	(2)
Describing Earth	24	(15)
The Geographic Grid	24	(3)
Communicating Geographic Information: Maps	27	(4)
Geographic Information Technology	31	(4)
GIS: A Type of Database Software	35	(4)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	39
Summary	40	(1)
Key Terms	41	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	41	(1)
Thinking Geographically	41	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	42	(1)
Web Work	42
Focus on
National Standards for the Study of Geography	6	(25)
Cartograms	31	(1)
The Internet	32
Critical Thinking
Tombouctou	11	(3)
Grouping Countries; Naming Groups	14	(9)
Parks, Gardens, and Preserves	23
Regional Focus on
Utica, New York	10	(34)
Weather and Climate	44	(52)
Energy and Weather	46	(9)
Incoming Solar Radiation	47	(3)
Storage of Heat in Land and Water	50	(1)
Heat Transfer Between the Atmosphere and Earth	51	(3)
Heat Exchange and Atmospheric Circulation	54	(1)
Precipitation	55	(5)
Condensation	55	(1)
Causes of Precipitation	56	(4)
Circulation Patterns	60	(11)
Pressure and Winds	61	(1)
Global Atmospheric Circulation	62	(2)
Seasonal Variations in Global Circulation	64	(1)
Ocean Circulation Patterns	65	(1)
Storms: Regional-Scale Circulation Patterns	66	(4)
The Weather on August 25, 1998	70	(1)
Climate	71	(3)
Air Temperature	71	(1)
Precipitation	72	(2)
Classifying Climate	74	(2)
Earth's Climate Regions	76	(12)
Humid Low-Latitude Tropical Climates (A)	78	(2)
Dry Climates (BW and BS)	80	(1)
Warm Midlatitude Climates (C)	81	(3)
Cold Midlatitude Climates (D)	84	(2)
Polar Climates (E)	86	(2)
Climate Change	88	(4)
Climatic Change over Geologic Time	88	(1)
Possible Causes of Climatic Variation	89	(2)
Global Warming	91	(1)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	92
Summary	93	(1)
Key Terms	93	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	94	(1)
Thinking Geographically	94	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	94	(1)
Web Work	95
Focus on
El Nino/La Nina	67	(1)
Tornadoes	68
Critical Thinking
Climates in Urban Areas	54	(42)
Landforms	96	(36)
Plate Tectonics	99	(8)
Earth's Moving Crust	100	(4)
Types of Boundaries Between Plates	104	(1)
Rock Formation	105	(2)
Slopes and Streams	107	(9)
Weathering	108	(1)
Moving Weathered Material	108	(8)
Ice, Wind, and Waves	116	(11)
Glaciers	116	(1)
Impact of Past Glaciations	117	(5)
Effects of Wind on Landforms	122	(1)
Coastal Erosion	122	(5)
The Dynamic Earth	127	(1)
Rates of Landform Change	127	(1)
Environmental Hazards	128	(1)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	128
Summary	129	(1)
Key Terms	129	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	129	(1)
Thinking Geographically	130	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	130	(1)
Web Work	131
Critical Thinking
Wealth and Natural Hazards	110	(5)
Regional Focus on
Management of the Lower Mississippi River	115	(17)
Biogeochemical Cycles and the Biosphere	132	(36)
The Biogeochemical Cycles	135	(6)
The Hydrologic Cycle	136	(1)
Water Budgets	136	(4)
Vegetation and the Hydrologic Cycle	140	(1)
Carbon, Oxygen, and Nutrient Flows in the Biosphere	141	(4)
The Carbon and Oxygen Cycles	141	(3)
Deforestation	144	(1)
Soils	145	(5)
Soil Formation	145	(1)
Soil Horizons	145	(1)
Thousands of Soils	146	(1)
Climate, Vegetation, Soil, and the Landscape	146	(1)
Soil Problems	147	(1)
Soil Fertility: Natural and Synthetic	147	(3)
Ecosystems	150	(6)
Ecosystem Processes	152	(3)
Biodiversity	155	(1)
Biomes: Global Patterns in the Biosphere	156	(8)
Forest Biomes	157	(2)
Savanna, Scrubland, and Open Woodland Biomes	159	(2)
Midlatitude Grassland Biome	161	(1)
Desert Biome	161	(2)
Tundra Biome	163	(1)
Natural and Human Effects on the Biosphere	163	(1)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	164
Summary	164	(1)
Key Terms	165	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	165	(1)
Thinking Geographically	166	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	166	(1)
Web Work	167
Focus on
Potential and Actual Evapotranspiration	138	(4)
Geography, Geographic Information Systems, and the Global Carbon Budget	142	(18)
Critical Thinking
Human-Dominated Systems	160	(2)
Fire and Chaparral in California	162	(6)
Population, Population Increase, and Migration	168	(50)
The Distribution and Density of Human Settlement	170	(5)
Population Density	171	(4)
World Population Growth	175	(15)
Population Projections	176	(1)
Rates of Population Increase Vary	177	(1)
Population Pyramids	178	(2)
The Demographic Transition	180	(4)
Is the Demographic Transition Model Still Relevant Today?	184	(3)
Changes in World Death Rates	187	(3)
Is Earth Overpopulated?	190	(1)
Other Significant Demographic Patterns	190	(3)
Sex Ratios in National Populations	190	(2)
The Aging Human Population	192	(1)
Migration	193	(11)
Prehistoric Human Migrations	194	(1)
The Migrations of Peoples since 1500	194	(10)
Migration Today	204	(10)
Refugees	205	(1)
The Impact of International Migration	206	(1)
Migration to Europe	207	(1)
Migrations of Asians	208	(1)
Migration to the United States and Canada	208	(6)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	214
Summary	214	(1)
Key Terms	215	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	215	(1)
Thinking Geographically	216	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	216	(1)
Web Work	217
Focus on
National Censuses	176	(33)
U.S. Census Bureau Categories	209
Critical Thinking
How Will You Retire?	192	(4)
The East-West Exchange of Disease	196	(17)
Is Immigration a Substitute for Education?	213	(5)
Cultural Geography	218	(48)
Cultural Evolution Contrasts with Cultural Diffusion	221	(8)
Theories of Cultural Evolution	221	(2)
Cultures and Environments	223	(1)
Cultural Diffusion	224	(5)
Identity and Behavioral Geography	229	(6)
Grouping Humans by Culture, Race, Ethnicity, and Identity	229	(4)
Behavioral Geography	233	(2)
Culture Realms	235	(12)
Problems in Defining Great Culture Regions	235	(1)
Visual Clues to Culture Realms	236	(4)
Forces that Stabilize the Pattern of Culture Realms	240	(1)
Trade and Cultural Diffusion	241	(2)
World Trade and Cultural Diffusion Today	243	(1)
The Acceleration of Diffusion	244	(2)
The Challenge of Change	246	(1)
The Global Diffusion of European Culture	247	(14)
Europe's Voyages of Contact	248	(1)
Economic Growth Increased Europe's Power	249	(4)
Cultural Imperialism	253	(3)
Westernization Today	256	(1)
America's Role	257	(4)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	261
Summary	263	(1)
Key Terms	263	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	264	(1)
Thinking Geographically	264	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	264	(1)
Web Work	265
Focus on
The Diffusion of Anglo-American Religious Folk Songs	228	(9)
Regionalism in the United States	237	(7)
The Development of ``The Global Child''	244
Critical Thinking
Is Latin America a Region? How Did It Get Its Name?	236	(11)
Can Cultures be Preserved?	247	(10)
The Diffusion of ``News''	257
Regional Focus on
Lahic	226	(40)
The Geography of Languages and Religions	266	(52)
Defining Languages and Language Regions	268	(4)
Linguisitic Geography	269	(2)
The World's Major Languages	271	(1)
The Development and Diffusion of Languages	272	(5)
The Indo-European Language Family	272	(1)
Other Language Families	273	(1)
The Geography of Writing	274	(2)
Toponymy: Language on the Landscape	276	(1)
Linguisitic Differentiation in the Modern World	277	(7)
National Languages	277	(7)
The Teachings, Origin, and Diffusion of the World's Major Religions	284	(17)
Judaism	286	(2)
Christianity	288	(6)
Islam	294	(4)
Hinduism and Sikhism	298	(1)
Buddhism	299	(1)
Other Eastern Religions	300	(1)
Animism and Shamanism	300	(1)
The Political and Social Impact of the Geography of Religion	301	(13)
Religion and Politics	301	(5)
Indirect Religious Influences on Government	306	(2)
Religion and Women's Rights	308	(3)
Religion and Dietary Habits	311	(1)
Religion and Economics	311	(1)
Religions and the Environment	312	(2)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	314
Summary	314	(1)
Key Terms	315	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	315	(1)
Thinking Geographically	315	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	316	(1)
Web Work	317
Focus on
Fundamentalism and Terrorism	287	(3)
Israel and U.S. Foreign Policy	290	(5)
Holidays	295	(9)
Are We Seeing an Islamic Reformation?	304	(6)
Turmoil in Pakistan	310
Critical Thinking
Competitive Expansion and Shrinkage	278	(29)
Liberation Theology	307
Regional Focus on
Language in the New State of East Timor	280	(28)
Religious Tensions on the Indian Subcontinent	308	(10)
The Human Food Supply	318	(40)
Food Supplies over the Past 200 Years	320	(2)
New Crops and Cropland	320	(1)
Transportation and Storage	321	(1)
The Green Revolution	321	(1)
Other Technological Advances	322	(1)
Agriculture Today	322	(12)
Subsistence Farming Contrasts with Commercial Farming	323	(3)
Types of Agriculture	326	(6)
What Determines Agricultural Productivity?	332	(2)
Livestock Around the World	334	(4)
The Direct and Indirect Consumption of Grain	334	(2)
Problems Associated with Animal Production	336	(1)
Dairy Farming and the Principle of Value Added	337	(1)
Food Supplies in the Future	338	(7)
New Crops Offer New Potential	339	(2)
The Scientific Revolution in Agriculture Continues	341	(2)
Resistance to Biotechnology	343	(2)
Global Warming	345	(1)
World Distribution of Food Supplies and Production	345	(8)
Problems in Increasing Food Production	345	(4)
The Rich Countries Subsidize Production and Export of Food	349	(4)
The Harvest of Fish	353	(2)
Traditional Fishing	353	(1)
Modern Fishing	353	(2)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	355
Summary	355	(1)
Key Terms	356	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	356	(1)
Thinking Geographically	356	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	356	(1)
Web Work	357
Focus on
How Farmers Decide the Ways in Which to Use Their Land: Von Thunen's ``Isolated City'' Model	338	(5)
Good-Bye to the Banana?	343	(9)
The U.S. Federal Agricultural Improvement and Reform Act of 1996	352
Critical Thinking
Continuing Crop Redistribution	342	(16)
Earth's Resources and Environmental Protection	358	(40)
What is a Natural Resource?	360	(4)
Characteristics of Resources	361	(2)
Substitutability	363	(1)
Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources	364	(1)
Mineral and Energy Resources	364	(16)
Mineral Resources	364	(1)
Variations in Mineral Use	364	(3)
Depletion and Substitution	367	(1)
Disposal and Recycling of Solid Waste	367	(2)
Energy Resources	369	(1)
Energy from Fossil Fuels	370	(6)
Nuclear and Renewable Energy Reserves	376	(4)
Air and Water Resources	380	(10)
Air Pollution	381	(4)
Water Pollution	385	(4)
Reducing Air and Water Pollution	389	(1)
Forests	390	(3)
Forests as Fiber Resources	390	(2)
Other Important Forest Uses	392	(1)
Balancing Competing Interests	393	(1)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	393
Summary	394	(1)
Key Terms	394	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	395	(1)
Thinking Geographically	395	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	395	(1)
Web Work	396
Focus on
Meat Production and Water Pollution	388
Critical Thinking
Should We Conserve Energy Resources?	375	(23)
Cities and Urbanization	398	(46)
Urban Functions	402	(3)
The Three Sectors of an Economy	403	(1)
The Economic Bases of Cities	404	(1)
The Locations of Cities	405	(3)
Central Place Theory	406	(1)
Urban Hierarchies	406	(1)
The Patterns of Urban Hierarchies	407	(1)
World Urbanization	408	(4)
Early Urban Societies	408	(1)
Urbanization Today	409	(1)
Government Policies to Reduce the Pull of Urban Life	410	(1)
Improving Rural Life	411	(1)
The Economic Vitality of Cities	411	(1)
The Internal Geography of Cities	412	(9)
Models of Urban Form	412	(3)
The Western Tradition of Urban and Regional Planning	415	(3)
Other Urban Models in Diverse Cultures	418	(3)
Cities and Suburbs in the United States	421	(19)
The Growth of Suburbs	421	(2)
The Social Costs of Suburbs	423	(6)
Suburbs at Century's End	429	(1)
Developments in the Central City	430	(5)
Efforts to Redistribute Jobs and Housing	435	(2)
Governing Metropolitan Regions	437	(3)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	440
Summary	440	(1)
Key Terms	441	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	441	(1)
Thinking Geographically	441	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	442	(1)
Web Work	443
Critical Thinking
The Question of Public Places on Private Property	427	(12)
Regional Focus on
Metropolitan Portland, Oregon	439	(5)
A World of States	444	(48)
The Development of the Nation-State Idea	446	(11)
The Idea of the Nation	447	(1)
The Nation-State	447	(3)
The European Nation-States	450	(2)
The Formation of States Outside Europe	452	(5)
Efforts to Achieve a World Map of Nation-States	457	(11)
Redrawing the World Political Map	458	(1)
Mass Expulsions or Genocide	459	(2)
Forging National Identities	461	(6)
Democracies and False Democracies	467	(1)
How States Demarcate and Organize Territory	468	(16)
The Shapes of States	468	(1)
International Borders	469	(2)
U.S. Border Security and Internal Security	471	(1)
Territorial Subdivision and Systems of Representation	472	(7)
How to Design Representative Districts	479	(5)
Measuring and Mapping Individual Rights	484	(4)
Sexism	485	(1)
The World Geography of Education	486	(1)
The World Geography of Freedom	486	(2)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	488
Summary	488	(1)
Key Terms	489	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	489	(1)
Thinking Geographically	489	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	490	(1)
Web Work	490
Focus on
Geopolitics	456	(9)
Critical Thinking
Can a Country Insulate Its Borders and Isolate Its People?	465	(16)
Nonterritorial Systems of Representation	481	(2)
Garza v. County of Los Angeles	483
Regional Focus on
Civil War in Sri Lanka	455	(37)
National Paths to Economic Growth	492	(52)
Analyzing and Comparing Countries' Economies	494	(15)
Measures of Gross Product and Their Limitations	494	(2)
Gross Product and the Environment	496	(2)
The Gross National Product and the Quality of Life	498	(4)
Preindustrial, Industrial, and Postindustrial Societies	502	(3)
Why Some Countries Are Rich and Some Countries Are Poor	505	(4)
The Geography of Manufacturing	509	(8)
Locational Determinants for Manufacturing Today	510	(2)
Locational Determinants Migrate	512	(1)
Manufacturing in the United States	512	(2)
The Economy of Japan	514	(1)
Technology and the Future Geography of Manufacturing	514	(3)
National Economic-Geographic Policies	517	(11)
Political Economy	517	(3)
Variations in Wealth Within States	520	(1)
How Do Governments Distribute Economic Activities?	521	(3)
National Transportation Infrastructures	524	(4)
National Trade Policies	528	(4)
The Import-Substitution Method of Growth	528	(1)
Export-Led Economic Growth	528	(3)
Where is the Third World?	531	(1)
The Formation of the Global Economy	532	(8)
Transnational Investment and Production	533	(1)
The International Tertiary Sector	534	(2)
The Geography of Foreign Direct Investment	536	(2)
The Globalization of Finance	538	(1)
Tourism	538	(1)
International Regulation of the Global Economy	539	(1)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	540
Summary	541	(1)
Key Terms	542	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	542	(1)
Thinking Geographically	542	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	543	(1)
Web Work	543
Focus on
Competing for a General Motors Plant	513
Regional Focus on
The Norwegian Solution	508	(8)
The Transformation of a National Economy	516	(3)
South Korea	519	(25)
Political Regionalization and Globalization	544	(55)
The Collapse of Empires	547	(8)
British Empire to Commonwealth	547	(1)
The French Empire	548	(1)
The Successor States of the Ottoman Empire	549	(1)
The Russian Empire, Revolution, and Reorganization	549	(5)
The Empire of the United States	554	(1)
New Unions of States	555	(16)
The European Union: Nations Knitting a Region Together	555	(8)
The Formation of a North American Trade Bloc	563	(6)
Expanding Western Hemisphere Free Trade	569	(1)
Other Regional International Groups	570	(1)
Global Government	571	(17)
The United Nations	571	(2)
Nongovernmental Organizations and Terrorist Organizations	573	(1)
Is National Sovereignty Inviolable?	574	(2)
The ``Axis of Evil''	576	(5)
Human Rights	581	(1)
Jurisdiction over Earth's Open Spaces	581	(7)
Protecting the Global Environment	588	(7)
Development, Pollution, and the Quality of Life	589	(3)
International Equity in Environmental Management	592	(3)
Conclusion: Critical Issues for the Future	595
Summary	596	(1)
Key Terms	596	(1)
Questions for Review and Discussion	597	(1)
Thinking Geographically	597	(1)
Suggestions for Further Learning	597	(1)
Web Work	598
Focus on
What Is Canadian Music?	563	(2)
Food Safety and International Food Trade	565	(13)
Is the United States the World's Policeman?	578	(9)
Regulation of Whaling	587	(7)
Malaria and DDT	594
Critical Thinking
Geographical Indicators	562	(4)
Intellectual Property and Globalization in the Drug Industry	566	(10)
Regional Focus on
Afghanistan, the Taliban, and Al Qaeda	576	(23)
Appendix I Map Scale and Projections	599	(7)
Appendix II The Koppen Climate Classification System	606	(3)
Appendix III The World Today: Population, Economy, Environment	609	(4)
Glossary	613	(10)
Index	623

Excerpts

Many readers of this textbook may not have studied geography since grade school, where geography may have meant simply memorizing place names. Knowing where places are, however, is not all there is to geography. Knowing place names is a tool for studying geography, just as counting is a tool for studying mathematics and reading is a tool for studying literature. In geography as in any other field of study, we begin by gathering some basic information--in the case of geography, this is the where. Once we know the names and locations of environmental features, people, and activities, then geography can proceed to the challenging questions of significance:What forcescreated the physical environment that characterizes various places?Whyare people and activities located where they are? How do the features and activities at any one placeinteractto make that place unique, and what are therelationshipsamong different places? What factors or forcescausethese distributions of human populations and activities? And how and why are these environmental features and human distributionschanging?Exploring these questions stretches your mind and imagination. Geography helps you understand current events, and it can provide you with information that is useful in deciding where to live, in seeking or building a career, and in forming your own position on political issues. This book introduces the principal content of geography, as well as the major tools and techniques of the field. Geography is sometimes subdivided intophysical geography,which studies the various attributes of the physical environment such as climate, plants and animals, and landforms, andhuman geography,which studies the geography of human groups and activities. Humans and the environment, however, interact; neither can be completely understood without the other. The contents reflect our sense of logic and our experience of the surest way to accumulate understanding. Instructors may wish to vary the order of the chapters, but many students find it easier to understand certain topics after other topics have already been covered. For example, today many rural people are migrating to cities to escape poverty. Therefore, in order to understand why the world's cities are growing fast, it helps if you have already studied changes in world agriculture and in various national farm policies, so we have placed the discussion of agriculture (Chapter 8) before that of urbanization (Chapter 10). THREE THEMES IN THIS TEXTBOOK This textbook emphasizes three themes throughout the study of geography. First, geography examines the interrelationships between humans and their natural environment; second, many basic principles of human geography can be studied and demonstrated in your own hometown; and third, geography is dynamic. Geography Explores the Interrelationships Between Humankind and the Environment The study of Earth's climates, soils, vegetation, and physical features is called physical geography, and physical geography sets the stage upon which humans act out their lives. A great deal of human effort is spent wresting a living from the environment, adjusting to it, or altering it. The first few chapters of this book, therefore, offer an overview of Earth's physical environment. The discussion emphasizes processes operating in the landscape, such as atmospheric circulation, landform change, and vegetation growth. An understanding of these processes is necessary to comprehend the mechanisms whereby humans transform Earth's environments. The theme of human--environmental interaction then weaves through the book. People interpret and evaluate possibilities in their environment, and they alter natural conditions. Any alteration in one of Earth's natural physical and ecological systems, however, will trigger changes throughout the entire system. Because these systems