Introduction to Microwave Remote Sensing

by Woodhouse; Iain H.

• ISBN13: 9780415271233
• ISBN10: 0415271231
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-11-02
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Introduction to Microwave Remote Sensing offers an extensive overview of this versatile and extremely precise technology for technically oriented undergraduates and graduate students.This textbook emphasizes an important shift in conceptualization and directs it toward students with prior knowledge of optical remote sensing: the author dispels any linkage between microwave and optical remote sensing. Instead, he constructs the concept of microwave remote sensing by comparing it to the process of audio perception, explaining the workings of the ear as a metaphor for microwave instrumentation.This volume takes an "application-driven" approach. Instead of describing the technology and then its uses, this textbook justifies the need for measurement then explains how microwave technology addresses this need.Following a brief summary of the field and a history of the use of microwaves, the book explores the physical properties of microwaves and the polarimetric properties of electromagnetic waves. It examines the interaction of microwaves with matter, analyzes passive atmospheric and passive surface measurements, and describes the operation of altimeters and scatterometers. The textbook concludes by explaining how high resolution images are created using radars, and how techniques of interferometry can be applied to both passive and active sensors.

Table of Contents

Why Microwaves?	1	(6)
Overview of Microwave Systems	2	(5)
Information from Passive Microwave Imagers	2	(1)
Information from Passive Microwave Sounders	2	(1)
Information from Active Microwave Instruments	3	(2)
How Can This Information be Used?	5	(2)
A Brief History of Microwaves	7	(16)
In the beginning...	8	(1)
Out of the Darkness: Maxwell and Hertz	8	(6)
Radios, Death Rays and Radar	14	(4)
The Venus Ruler and Little Green Men	18	(2)
Imaging Radar	20	(1)
Microwave Remote Sensing from Space	21	(1)
Further Reading	22	(1)
Physical Fundamentals	23	(42)
Physical Properties of EM Waves	23	(6)
Electromagnetic Radiation as Waves	24	(4)
Complex Wave Description	28	(1)
Energy and Power of Waves	29	(4)
Polarisation	31	(2)
Combination of Waves	33	(4)
Coherence	34	(3)
The Most Important Section in This Book	37	(16)
Phase as a (Relative) Distance Measure	37	(2)
Combining Two Waves in 2-D	39	(4)
Quantifying the Interference Pattern	43	(2)
Passive Case	45	(2)
Multiple Source Interference Pattern	47	(1)
Beamwidth and Angular Resolution	48	(2)
Huygens' Wavelets	50	(1)
More on Coherence	51	(2)
Propagation of Microwaves	53	(4)
Through Lossy Media	55	(1)
Moving Sources	56	(1)
Where Do Microwaves Come From?	57	(7)
How Are They Produced in Nature?	57	(3)
Radiation Laws	60	(2)
How Are Microwaves Produced Artificially?	62	(2)
Further Reading	64	(1)
Polarimetry	65	(28)
Describing Polarised Waves	66	(2)
Summary of Linear Basis	67	(1)
Superposition of Polarised Waves	68	(5)
Representing Polarisation	73	(9)
Poincare sphere	73	(1)
Mathematical Description	74	(1)
Stokes Vector	74	(2)
Brightness Stokes Vector	76	(1)
Partially Polarised Waves	76	(2)
The Stokes Scattering Matrix	78	(2)
The Scattering Matrix	80	(1)
Target Vector	80	(1)
Covariance Matrix	81	(1)
Passive Polarimetry	82	(1)
Polarimetry in Radar	82	(3)
Radar Polarimeters	82	(1)
Polarimetric Synthesis and Response Curves	83	(2)
Important Polarimetric Properties	85	(6)
Unpolarised Power	87	(1)
Degree of Polarisation and Coefficient of Variation	87	(1)
Polarimetric Ratios	88	(1)
Coherent Parameters	89	(1)
Polarimetric Decomposition	90	(1)
Further Reading	91	(2)
Microwaves in the Real World	93	(58)
Continuous Media and the Atmosphere	93	(9)
Radiative Transfer Theory	94	(2)
Microwave Brightness Temperature	96	(2)
Spectral Lines	98	(2)
Line Broadening	100	(1)
Faraday Rotation	101	(1)
Interaction With Discrete Objects	102	(10)
Diffraction	103	(1)
Importance of Diffraction	104	(1)
Scattering	105	(1)
Radar Cross-section	106	(4)
Importance of Scattering Theory	110	(2)
Scattering and Emission from Volumes	112	(6)
Transmission Through Volumes	113	(1)
Emission	114	(2)
Scattering	116	(2)
Reflection and Emission from Smooth Surfaces	118	(6)
Scattering from Smooth Boundaries	120	(3)
Emission from Smooth Boundaries	123	(1)
Summary	124	(1)
Scattering and Emission from Rough Surfaces	124	(3)
Definition of ``Rough''	124	(1)
Effects of Roughness	125	(1)
Summary	126	(1)
Non-Random (Periodic) Surfaces	127	(1)
Scattering and Emission from Natural Surfaces	128	(16)
Oceans and Lakes	129	(3)
Hydrometeors	132	(1)
Ice and Snow	133	(1)
Freshwater Ice	134	(1)
Glacial Ice	135	(1)
Sea Ice	136	(2)
Bare Rock and Deserts	138	(1)
Soils	139	(3)
Vegetation	142	(2)
Special Scatterers	144	(5)
Corner Reflectors	144	(2)
Moving Targets	146	(1)
Mixed Targets	147	(2)
Further Reading	149	(2)
Detecting Microwaves	151	(28)
General Approach	151	(2)
Conceptual Approach to Microwave Systems	153	(1)
A Word of Warning	154	(1)
Basic Microwave Radiometer	154	(1)
The Antenna	154	(9)
Parabolic Antennas	155	(2)
The Dipole Antenna	157	(2)
Array Antennas	159	(1)
Antenna Properties	160	(3)
The Receiver	163	(2)
Detector	165	(1)
Coherent Systems	165	(1)
Active Systems	166	(1)
System Performance	167	(2)
Noise and Sensitivity	167	(1)
Sensitivity Considerations for Receivers	167	(2)
Other Sources of Uncertainty	169	(1)
Calibration	169	(7)
Antenna Calibration	172	(1)
Verification and Validation	173	(1)
Types of Calibration	173	(2)
Strategies for Calibrating Receivers	175	(1)
Final Remarks on Calibration	176	(1)
Further Reading	177	(2)
Atmospheric Sounding	179	(26)
Atmospheric Sounding	180	(4)
The Need for Measurements	180	(1)
The Earth's Atmosphere	181	(1)
Water Vapour and Oxygen	182	(1)
Clouds and Precipitation	183	(1)
Ozone	183	(1)
Chlorine Monoxide	184	(1)
Other Relevant Measurements	184	(1)
Principles of Measurement	184	(2)
Theoretical Basis of Sounding	186	(9)
The Forward Model	186	(2)
Simple Formulation of the Forward Model	188	(1)
The Inverse Model	189	(2)
Solving the Inverse Problem	191	(3)
The Influence Functions	194	(1)
Viewing Geometries	195	(5)
Nadir Sounding	195	(2)
Limb Sounding	197	(3)
Passive Rainfall Mapping	200	(2)
The Need for Measurements	200	(1)
Principles of Measurement	200	(1)
Emission Method	201	(1)
Scattering Method	201	(1)
Further Reading	202	(3)
Passive Imaging	205	(16)
Principles of Measurement	206	(3)
Background	206	(1)
Practical Radiometers	206	(1)
Viewing Geometries	207	(1)
The Generic Forward Model	207	(2)
Oceans	209	(4)
The Need for Measurements	209	(2)
Principles of Measurement: SST	211	(1)
Principles of Measurement: Ocean Salinity	212	(1)
Principles of Measurement: Ocean Winds	213	(1)
Sea Ice	213	(4)
The Need for Measurements	213	(1)
Sea Ice Concentration	214	(3)
Land	217	(3)
The Need for Measurements	217	(1)
The Forward Problem Over Land	218	(1)
Empirical Approaches to Snow Depth	219	(1)
A Final Comment on Passive Polarimetry	220	(1)
Further Reading	220	(1)
Active Microwaves	221	(38)
Principles of Measurement	222	(3)
What is RADAR?	223	(1)
Basic Radar Operation	224	(1)
The Generic Equations of Radar Performance	225	(6)
The Radar Equation	225	(2)
Range resolution	227	(4)
Radar Altimeters	231	(16)
The Need for Altimeter Measurements	232	(3)
Altimeter Geometry	235	(1)
Instrumentation	236	(1)
Echo Shape Analysis	237	(4)
Range Ambiguity	241	(2)
Accuracy of Height Retrievals	243	(2)
Scanning Altimeters	245	(1)
Calibration and Validation	246	(1)
Improving Directionality	247	(3)
Sub-Beamwidth Resolution	248	(1)
Synthetic Aperture Altimeters	249	(1)
Scatterometers	250	(7)
The Need for Scatterometer Measurements	251	(1)
General Operation	252	(1)
Rain Radar	253	(1)
Windscatterometers	254	(3)
Polarimetric Scatterometers	257	(1)
Further Reading	257	(2)
Imaging Radar	259	(46)
The Need for Imaging Radar	259	(6)
Oceans	260	(1)
Sea Ice	261	(1)
Terrestrial Surfaces	262	(1)
The Water Cloud Model for Vegetation	263	(1)
Other Uses of Radar Imagery	264	(1)
What is an Image?	265	(2)
Radar Image Construction	267	(1)
Side-Looking Airborne Radar	268	(3)
Ground Range resolution	269	(1)
Azimuth Resolution	270	(1)
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)	271	(9)
Aperture Synthesis: A Doppler Interpretation	271	(4)
Aperture Synthesis: A Geometric Explanation	275	(3)
Geometry vs Doppler	278	(2)
SAR Focussing	280	(1)
Radar equation for SAR	280	(1)
Geometric Distortions in Radar Images	281	(3)
Lay-over and Foreshortening	281	(1)
Radar Shadow	282	(1)
Motion Errors	283	(1)
Moving Targets	284	(1)
Operational Limits	284	(3)
Ambiguities	285	(1)
Coverage vs PRF	286	(1)
Other SAR Modes	287	(1)
ScanSAR Operation	287	(1)
Spotlight Mode	287	(1)
Working With SAR Images	287	(13)
Speckle	289	(3)
Speckle Statistics	292	(4)
Speckle Filtering	296	(1)
Geometric Correction	297	(2)
Limitations of Geometric Correction	299	(1)
SAR Data Formats	300	(1)
Extracting Topography from SAR Images	301	(2)
Stereo SAR Radargrammetry	302	(1)
SAR Clinometry	302	(1)
Further Reading	303	(2)
Interferometry	305	(38)
The Need for Interferometric Measurements	305	(1)
Principles of Interferometry	306	(4)
Phase Measurements	306	(1)
Application of Dual Systems	307	(2)
Interferometry for Resolving Direction	309	(1)
Passive Imaging Interferometry	310	(2)
Radar Interferometry	312	(19)
Interferometric Altimetry	312	(1)
Interferometric SAR	313	(2)
InSAR Viewing Geometries	315	(10)
Interferometric Coherence Magnitude	325	(2)
Decorrelation	327	(2)
Summary of Decorrelation	329	(2)
Practical DEM Generation	331	(2)
InSAR Processing Chain	332	(1)
Vegetation Height Estimation	333	(3)
Single Frequency	334	(1)
Dual-Frequency	334	(1)
Polarimetric Interferometry and Multibaseline Interferometry	335	(1)
SAR Tomography	335	(1)
Differential SAR Interferometry	336	(4)
Considerations and Limitations	338	(1)
Atmospheric Water Vapour	339	(1)
Permanent Scatterer Interferometry	340	(1)
Along-Track Interferometry	341	(1)
Further Reading	342	(1)
A Summary of Useful Mathematics	343	(10)
Angles	343	(1)
Degrees	343	(1)
Radians	343	(1)
Steradian (solid angle)	344	(1)
Some Useful Trigonometric Relations	344	(1)
Logs and Exponentials	344	(2)
Some Fundamental Properties	345	(1)
Special values	345	(1)
Series Expansions	346	(1)
Complex Numbers	346	(3)
Vectors	349	(1)
Law of Vector Algebra	349	(1)
Cross or Vector Product	349	(1)
Matrices	350	(3)
Matrix Algebra	352	(1)
bibliography	353	(4)
index	357