Introduction to Mineralogy

by Nesse, William D.

• ISBN13: 9780195106916
• ISBN10: 0195106911
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1999-10-07
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

Introduction to Mineralogy consolidates much of the material now covered in traditional mineralogy and optical mineralogy courses and focuses on describing minerals within their geologic context. It presents the important traditional content of mineralogy including crystallography, chemicalbonding, controls on mineral structure, mineral stability, and crystal growth to provide a foundation that enables students to understand the nature and occurrence of minerals. Physical, optical, and X-ray powder diffraction techniques of mineral study are described in detail, and common chemicalanalytical methods are outlined as well. Detailed descriptions of over 100 common minerals are provided, and the geologic context within which these minerals occur is emphasized. Appendices provide tables and diagrams to help students with mineral identification, using both physical and opticalproperties. Numerous line drawings, photographs, and photomicrographs help make complex concepts understandable. Introduction to Mineralogy not only provides specific knowledge about minerals but also helps students develop the intellectual tools essential for a solid, scientific education. Thiscomprehensive text is useful for undergraduate students in a wide range of mineralogy courses.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
PART I: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND CRYSTAL CHEMISTRY
Introduction	3	(3)
Minerals	3	(1)
Mineraloids	4	(1)
Mineralogy	4	(1)
Mineral Names	4	(1)
General References on Mineralogy	5	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	5	(1)
Crystallography	6	(33)
Introduction	6	(1)
Translational Symmetry	6	(6)
Plane Lattices	6	(1)
Space Lattices and Unit Cell	7	(1)
Bravais Lattices and Crystal Systems	8	(4)
Point Symmetry	12	(2)
Reflection	12	(1)
Rotation	12	(1)
Inversion	12	(1)
Compound Symmetry Operations	12	(1)
Symmetry Notation	13	(1)
32 Point Groups	14	(3)
Steno's Law	15	(2)
Measurement of Crystal Angles	17	(1)
Determining Crystal System and Crystal Class	17	(1)
Space Groups	17	(2)
Crystal Faces	19	(4)
Laws of Hauy and Bravais	19	(1)
Miller Indices	19	(1)
Indices and Crystal Axes in the Hexagonal Crystal System	20	(2)
Determining Miller Index	22	(1)
Assigning Miller Indexes by Inspection	23	(1)
Crystallographic Directions	23	(1)
Zones	23	(1)
Crystal Forms	24	(5)
Isometric Forms	24	(1)
Nonisometric Forms	25	(3)
Combining Crystal Forms	28	(1)
Enantiomorphous Forms and Crystals	28	(1)
Positive and Negative Forms	29	(1)
Forms in the Six Crystal Systems	29	(5)
Triclinic Crystal System	29	(1)
Monoclinic Crystal System	30	(1)
Orthorhombic Crystal System	30	(1)
Tetragonal Crystal System	31	(1)
Hexagonal Crystal System	31	(2)
Isometric Crystal System	33	(1)
Crystal Habit	34	(4)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	38	(1)
Crystal Chemistry	39	(18)
Introduction	39	(1)
The Nature of Chemical Elements	39	(6)
Nucleus	39	(1)
Electrons	39	(2)
Formation of Ions	41	(4)
Abundance of the Elements	45	(1)
Chemical Bonding	46	(7)
Valence-Related Bonding	46	(5)
Relation among the Valence-Dependent Bonds	51	(1)
Bonds Not Involving Valence Electrons	52	(1)
Size of Atoms and Ions	53	(3)
Oxidation State	54	(1)
Coordination	55	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	56	(1)
Crystal Structure	57	(17)
Introduction	57	(1)
Controls of Crystal Structure	57	(8)
Structure Controls with Metallic Bonding	57	(1)
Structure Controls with Covalent Bonding	58	(1)
Structure Controls with Molecular Crystals	58	(1)
Structure Controls with lonic Bonding	59	(5)
Application of Pauling's Rules	64	(1)
Illustrating Mineral Structures	65	(1)
Isostructural Minerals	65	(1)
Polymorphism	66	(3)
Reconstructive Polymorphism	67	(1)
Displacive Polymorphism	68	(1)
Order-Disorder Polymorphism	68	(1)
Polytypism	69	(1)
Mineral Classification	69	(1)
Compositional Variation in Minerals	69	(2)
Substitutional Solid Solution	70	(1)
Mineral Formulas	71	(1)
Graphic Representation	72	(1)
Binary Diagrams	72	(1)
Ternary Diagrams	72	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	73	(1)
Crystal Growth	74	(23)
Introduction	74	(1)
Mineral Stability	74	(3)
Stability	74	(1)
Gibbs Free Energy	75	(1)
Mineral Reactions	75	(2)
Mineral Nucleation	77	(2)
Homogeneous Nucleation	77	(2)
Heterogeneous Nucleation	79	(1)
Crystal Growth	79	(5)
Rate of Growth	80	(1)
Zoned Crystals	81	(3)
Structural Defects	84	(6)
Point Defects	84	(1)
Line Defects	84	(2)
Planar Defects	86	(1)
Twinning	87	(3)
Postcrystallization Processes	90	(4)
Ordering	90	(1)
Twinning	90	(1)
Recrystallization	91	(1)
Exsolution	91	(1)
Pseudomorphism	92	(1)
Radioactivity and Minerals	93	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	94	(3)
PART II: MINERAL PROPERTIES, STUDY, AND IDENTIFICATION
Physical Properties of Minerals	97	(17)
Introduction	97	(1)
Mass-Dependent Properties	97	(2)
Density	97	(1)
Specific Gravity	97	(2)
Properties Related to Mechanical Cohesion	99	(3)
Hardness	99	(1)
Tenacity	100	(1)
Cleavage	100	(1)
Fracture	101	(1)
Parting	101	(1)
Color and Luster	102	(6)
Light	102	(1)
Perception of Color	102	(1)
Mineral Luster	103	(1)
Mineral Color	103	(3)
Color from Mechanical Causes	106	(1)
Consistency of Mineral Color	107	(1)
Streak	107	(1)
Luminescence	107	(1)
Magnetism	108	(2)
Diamagnetism	108	(1)
Paramagnetism	108	(2)
Ferromagnetism	110	(1)
Ferrimagnetism	110	(1)
Electrical Properties	110	(2)
Electrical Conductivity	110	(1)
Piezoelectricity	111	(1)
Pyroelectricity	112	(1)
Miscellaneous Properties	112	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	113	(1)
Optical Mineralogy	114	(46)
Introduction	114	(1)
Light	114	(2)
Light Waves	114	(1)
Polarized Light	115	(1)
Interaction of Light and Matter	116	(2)
Optically Isotropic versus Anisotropic Materials	116	(1)
Reflection and Refraction	117	(1)
Dispersion	118	(1)
Petrographic Microscope	118	(3)
Illuminator	118	(1)
Substage Assembly	118	(1)
Microscope Stage	119	(1)
Objective Lenses	119	(1)
Upper Polarizer	120	(1)
Bertrand Lens	120	(1)
Oculars	120	(1)
Focusing Mechanism	121	(1)
Accessories	121	(1)
Direction Conventions	121	(1)
Isotropic Materials	121	(1)
Anisotropic Minerals	122	(8)
Interference Phenomena	122	(4)
Use of the Interference Color Chart	126	(1)
Extinction	127	(1)
Function of Accessory Plates	127	(3)
Optical Indicatrix	130	(6)
Isotropic Indicatrix	130	(1)
Uniaxial Indicatrix	131	(2)
Biaxial Indicatrix	133	(3)
Mineral Color and Pleochroism	136	(1)
Isotropic Minerals	136	(1)
Uniaxial Minerals	136	(1)
Biaxial Minerals	137	(1)
Extinction Angle and Sign of Elongation	137	(2)
Extinction Angle	137	(1)
Sign of Elongation	138	(1)
Categories of Extinction	138	(1)
Extinction in Uniaxial Minerals	139	(1)
Extinction in Biaxial Minerals	139	(1)
Interference Figures	139	(12)
Uniaxial Interference Figures	140	(3)
Biaxial Interference Figure	143	(8)
Refractometry: Measurement of Index of Refraction	151	(5)
Immersion Method	151	(4)
Refractometry in Thin Section	155	(1)
Isotropic Minerals	156	(1)
Uniaxial Minerals	156	(1)
Biaxial Minerals	156	(1)
Reflected Light Optics	156	(1)
Observation in Plane Polarized Light	157	(1)
Observations with Crossed Polarizers	157	(1)
Tactics for Mineral Identification	157	(2)
Thin Section Identification	158	(1)
Grain Mount Identification	158	(1)
Polished Section Identification	159	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	159	(1)
Introduction to X-Ray Crystallography	160	(9)
Introduction	160	(1)
X-Rays	160	(2)
X-Ray Generation	160	(2)
X-Ray Detection	162	(1)
X-Ray Diffraction	162	(1)
Powder Method	163	(5)
Sample Preparation	163	(1)
Instrumental Output	163	(1)
Data Reduction	164	(1)
Powder Diffraction File	165	(1)
Bragg Reflection Indices	166	(1)
Mineral Identification	166	(1)
Mixed Samples	167	(1)
Estimation of Relative Mineral Abundance	168	(1)
Estimation of Composition	168	(1)
Determining Unit Cell Parameters	168	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	168	(1)
Chemical Analysis of Minerals	169	(6)
Introduction	169	(1)
Analytical Methods	169	(3)
Wet Chemical	169	(1)
Electron Probe Microanalysis	169	(1)
X-Ray Fluorescence	170	(1)
Mass Spectrometry	171	(1)
Conventions in Reporting Chemical Analyses	171	(1)
Conversion of Chemical Analyses to Structural Formulas	172	(2)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	174	(1)
Strategies for Study	175	(8)
Introduction	175	(1)
Mineral Identification Tactics	175	(4)
Mineral Separation	175	(2)
Hand Sample Identification	177	(1)
Thin Section Identification	178	(1)
Grain Mount Identification	179	(1)
Polished Section Identification	179	(1)
X-Ray Diffraction	179	(1)
Mineral Association	179	(1)
Problems in Paradise	180	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	180	(3)
PART III: MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Silicates	183	(18)
Introduction	183	(1)
Silicate Structure and Classification	183	(3)
Mafic versus Felsic	186	(1)
Igneous Rocks	186	(4)
Magmatic Processes	189	(1)
Igneous Environments	189	(1)
Terrigenous Sedimentary Rocks	190	(4)
Sedimentary Processes	191	(2)
Sedimentary Environments	193	(1)
Metamorphic Rocks	194	(6)
Metamorphic Variables	194	(2)
Metamorphic Processes	196	(1)
Metamorphic Grade, Facies, Mineral Zone Boundaries and Isograds	196	(2)
Major Compositional Groups of Metamorphic Rocks	198	(1)
Metamorphic Environments	199	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	200	(1)
Framework Silicates	201	(34)
Introduction	201	(1)
Silica Group	201	(7)
Quartz	202	(4)
Tridymite	206	(1)
Cristobalite	207	(1)
Opal	208	(1)
Feldspar Group	208	(17)
Composition	208	(1)
Structure	209	(1)
Al/Si Order/Disorder	210	(2)
Exsolution in the Feldspars	212	(1)
Other Feldspar Intergrowths	213	(1)
Twinning	213	(2)
Plagioclase	215	(5)
K-Feldspar	220	(5)
Feldspathoids	225	(3)
Nepheline	225	(2)
Leucite	227	(1)
Sodalite	227	(1)
Zeolite Group	228	(4)
Scapolite	232	(2)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	234	(1)
Sheet Silicates	235	(26)
Introduction	235	(1)
Structure and Classification	235	(4)
Layer Silicates	237	(1)
Layer Silicates	237	(2)
Polytypism	239	(1)
TO Structures (1:1)	239	(3)
Serpentine (Antigorite, Chrysotile, Lizardite)	239	(3)
Kaolinite	242	(1)
TOT Structures (2:1)	242	(2)
Talc	242	(1)
Pyrophyllite	243	(1)
TOT + c Structures: Mica Minerals (2:1)	244	(5)
Muscovite	244	(2)
Biotite	246	(2)
Glauconite	248	(1)
TOT + c Structures: Brittle Micas (2:1)	249	(2)
Margarite	249	(1)
Clintonite	250	(1)
TOT + O Structure	251	(1)
Chlorite	251	(1)
Clay Minerals	252	(5)
Structure and Classification	253	(2)
Geology of Clay	255	(1)
Identification	256	(1)
Uses	256	(1)
Clay in the Environment	257	(1)
Other Sheet Silicates	257	(3)
Stilpnomelane	257	(2)
Prehnite	259	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	260	(1)
Chain Silicates	261	(30)
Introduction	261	(1)
Pyroxene Group	261	(13)
Structure and Classification	261	(2)
Geology of Pyroxenes	263	(2)
Orthopyroxene	265	(2)
Low-Ca-Clinopyroxene	267	(1)
Calcic Clinopyroxene	268	(1)
Aegirine (Acmite), Aegirine-Augite	269	(2)
Jadeite	271	(2)
Omphacite	273	(1)
Spodumene	273	(1)
Pyroxenoid Group	274	(3)
Introduction	274	(1)
Wollastonite	274	(1)
Rhodonite	274	(2)
Pectolite	276	(1)
Amphibole Group	277	(12)
Structure and Classification	277	(2)
Geology of Amphiboles	279	(1)
Orthoamphibole	280	(2)
Cummingtonite-Grunerite	282	(1)
Tremolite-Ferro-actinolite	283	(2)
Hornblende	285	(2)
Glaucophane-Riebeckite	287	(1)
Other Amphiboles	288	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	289	(2)
Disilicates and Ring Silicates	291	(15)
Disilicates	291	(9)
Structure and Classification	291	(2)
Zoisite	293	(1)
Clinozoisite-Epidote	294	(3)
Alianite	297	(1)
Lawsonite	298	(1)
Pumpellyite	299	(1)
Ring Silicates	300	(5)
Structure and Classification	300	(1)
Beryl	300	(2)
Cordierite	302	(1)
Tourmaline	303	(2)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	305	(1)
Orthosilicates	306	(20)
Introduction	306	(4)
Olivine Group	306	(4)
Garnet Group	310	(4)
Zircon	312	(2)
Aluminum Silicates	314	(11)
Andalusite	316	(2)
Sillimanite	318	(1)
Kyanite	319	(1)
Staurolite	319	(2)
Chloritoid	321	(1)
Titanite	322	(1)
Topaz	323	(2)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	325	(1)
Carbonates, Sulfates, Phosphates, Tungstates, Molybdates, and Borates	326	(30)
Structure and Classification	326	(1)
Carbonates	326	(1)
Rhombohedral Carbonates (Calcite and Dolomite Groups)	327	(8)
Calcite	329	(2)
Magnesite	331	(1)
Siderite	332	(1)
Rhodochrosite	333	(1)
Dolomite-Ankerite	334	(1)
Aragonite Group	335	(4)
Aragonite	336	(1)
Witherite	337	(1)
Strontianite	338	(1)
OH-Bearing Carbonates	339	(1)
Malachite	339	(1)
Azurite	340	(1)
Sulfates	340	(6)
Gypsum	341	(3)
Anhydrite	344	(1)
Barite	345	(1)
Phosphates	346	(6)
Apatite	346	(3)
Monazite	349	(1)
Xenotime	350	(1)
Tourquoise	351	(1)
Tungstates and Molybdates	352	(1)
Borates	353	(2)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	355	(1)
Oxides, Hydroxides, and Halides	356	(22)
Introduction	356	(1)
Oxides	356	(1)
X2O Group	356	(2)
Cuprite	356	(1)
Ice	357	(1)
XO Group	358	(1)
XY2O4 Minerals	358	(5)
Spinel Group	358	(2)
Magnetite	360	(1)
Chromite	361	(1)
Spinel Series	362	(1)
Chrysoberyl	363	(1)
X2O3 Group	363	(4)
Hematite	364	(1)
Corundum	365	(1)
Ilmenite	366	(1)
XO2 Group	367	(3)
Rutile	367	(1)
Cassiterite	368	(1)
Uraninite	369	(1)
Hydroxides	370	(4)
Brucite	371	(1)
Iron Hydroxide Minerals	371	(1)
Aluminum Hydroxide Minerals	372	(1)
Manganese Oxide and Hydroxide Minerals	372	(2)
Halides	374	(3)
Halite	374	(2)
Sylvite	376	(1)
Fluorite	376	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	377	(1)
Sulfides and Related Minerals	378	(19)
Introduction	378	(1)
Crystal Chemistry and Classification	378	(1)
Sulfide Paragenesis	379	(3)
Hydrothermal Deposits	379	(1)
Supergene Processes	380	(2)
Sulfide Minerals	382	(12)
Sphalerite	382	(3)
Galena	385	(1)
Pyrrhotite	386	(1)
Chalcopyrite	387	(1)
Cinnabar	388	(1)
Pyrite	389	(1)
Marcasite	390	(1)
Molyedenite	391	(1)
Bornite	392	(1)
Chalcocite	392	(1)
Covellite	393	(1)
Sulfarsenides	394	(1)
Arsenopyrite	395	(1)
Arsenides	395	(1)
Tellurides	395	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	396	(1)
Native Elements	397	(30)
Introduction	397	(1)
Metals	397	(3)
Gold	398	(1)
Silver	399	(1)
Copper	400	(1)
Semimetals	400	(1)
Nonmetals	401	(3)
Sulfur	401	(1)
Graphite	402	(1)
Diamond	403	(1)
References Cited and Suggestions for Additional Reading	404	(1)
APPENDICES
Appendix A. Effective Ionic Radii of the Elements	405	(5)
Appendix B. Determinative Tables	410	(13)
Table B.1. Determinative Table for Nonmetallic Minerals with White, Gray, or Other Pale Colored Streak	410	(4)
Table B.2. Nonmetallic Minerals with Distinctly Colored Streak	414	(1)
Table B.3. Minerals with Metallic and Submetallic Luster	414	(1)
Table B.4. Specific Gravity	415	(1)
Table B.5. Minerals That May Flouresce	416	(1)
Table B.6. Color of Minerals in Thin Section and Grain Mount	416	(1)
Table B.7. Indices of Refraction of Isotropic Minerals	417	(1)
Table B.8. Indices of Refraction of Uniaxial Minerals	418	(1)
Table B.9. Indices of Refraction of Biaxial Negative Minerals Arranged in Order of Increasing nβ	419	(1)
Table B.10. Indices of Refraction of Biaxial Positive Minerals Arranged in Order of Increasing nβ	420	(1)
Table B.11. Minerals That Produce Pleochroic Halos in Surrounding Minerals	421	(1)
Table B.12. Colors Exhibited by Opaque Minerals in Polished Section Viewed in Air	421	(1)
Table B.13. Opaque or Nearly Opague Minerals That Display Internal Reflections with Reflected Light	422	(1)
Crystal Drawing Conventions	422	(1)
Appendix C. Mineral Associations	423	(4)
Table C.1. Mineralogy of Common Igneous Rocks	423	(1)
Table C.2. Mineralogy of Sedimentary Rocks	423	(1)
Table C.3. Mineralogy of Common Metamorphic Rocks	424	(1)
Table C.4. Mineralogy of Hydrothermal Sulfide Deposits	425	(2)
Mineral Index	427	(6)
Subject Index	433