Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolism, Fourth Edition

by Bender; David A.

• ISBN13: 9781420043129
• ISBN10: 1420043129
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Nonspecific Binding
• Copyright: 2007-07-17
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

What's new in the Fourth Edition-: New information examining the role of nutrition in common chronic diseases, End-of-chapter key-point summaries and open-ended, case-based problems, A second color to enhance the text, A revised CD-ROM with PowerPoint presentations for each chapter, self-assessment tests, clinical problems, a virtual laboratory, and a program for nutrient analysis and meal evaluation.

Table of Contents

Preface	p. xv
Additional resources	p. xvii
Problems at the end of chapters	p. xviii
Review journals	p. xix
About the author	p. xxi
Why eat?	p. 1
Objectives	p. 1
The need for energy	p. 1
Units of energy	p. 3
Metabolic fuels	p. 3
The need for carbohydrate and fat	p. 3
The need for protein	p. 4
The need for micronutrients-minerals and vitamins	p. 4
Hunger and appetite	p. 5
Hunger and satiety-short-term control of feeding	p. 5
Long-term control of food intake and energy expenditure	p. 6
Appetite	p. 8
Taste and flavor	p. 8
Why do people eat what they do?	p. 9
The availability and cost of food	p. 9
Religion, habit, and tradition	p. 10
Luxury status of scarce and expensive foods	p. 11
The social functions of food	p. 11
Key points	p. 12
Enzymes and metabolic pathways	p. 13
Objectives	p. 13
Chemical reactions: breaking and making covalent bonds	p. 13
Equilibrium	p. 15
Catalysts	p. 15
Enzymes	p. 16
Specificity of enzymes	p. 18
The stages in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction	p. 19
Units of enzyme activity	p. 20
Factors affecting enzyme activity	p. 20
Effect of pH	p. 20
Effect of temperature	p. 21
Effect of substrate concentration	p. 22
Experimental determination of K[subscript m] and V[subscript max]	p. 23
Enzymes with two substrates	p. 25
Cooperative (allosteric) enzymes	p. 26
Inhibition of enzyme activity	p. 26
Irreversible inhibitors	p. 27
Competitive reversible inhibitors	p. 28
Noncompetitive reversible inhibitors	p. 29
Uncompetitive reversible inhibitors	p. 29
Coenzymes and prosthetic groups	p. 30
Coenzymes and metal ions in oxidation and reduction reactions	p. 30
Metal ions	p. 31
Riboflavin and flavoproteins	p. 31
The nicotinamide nucleotide coenzymes: NAD and NADP	p. 32
The classification and naming of enzymes	p. 34
Metabolic pathways	p. 35
Linear and branched pathways	p. 37
Spiral or looped reaction sequences	p. 37
Cyclic pathways	p. 38
Enzymes in clinical chemistry and medicine	p. 40
Measurement of metabolites in blood, urine and tissue samples	p. 40
Measurement of enzymes in blood samples	p. 40
Assessment of vitamin nutritional status	p. 41
Key points	p. 42
The role of ATP in metabolism	p. 47
Objectives	p. 47
The adenine nucleotides	p. 47
Functions of ATP	p. 48
The role of ATP in endothermic reactions	p. 49
Transport of materials across cell membranes	p. 51
Protein binding for concentrative uptake	p. 51
Metabolic trapping	p. 52
Active transport	p. 52
P-type transporters	p. 52
ABC-transporters	p. 52
The sodium pump	p. 54
The role of ATP in muscle contraction	p. 55
Creatine phosphate in muscle	p. 56
Phosphorylation of ADP to ATP	p. 58
Oxidative phosphorylation: the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP linked to the oxidation of metabolic fuels	p. 60
The mitochondrion	p. 61
The mitochondrial electron transport chain	p. 63
Phosphorylation of ADP linked to electron transport	p. 67
Coupling of electron transport, oxidative phosphorylation, and fuel oxidation	p. 69
Uncouplers	p. 70
Respiratory poisons	p. 71
Key points	p. 73
Digestion and absorption	p. 75
Objectives	p. 77
The gastrointestinal tract	p. 75
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates	p. 78
The classification of carbohydrates	p. 78
Monosaccharides	p. 79
Sugar alcohols	p. 81
Disaccharides	p. 81
Reducing and nonreducing sugars	p. 81
Polysaccharides: starches and glycogen	p. 83
Nonstarch polysaccharides (dietary fiber)	p. 84
Carbohydrate digestion and absorption	p. 85
Starch digestion	p. 85
Digestion of disaccharides	p. 86
The absorption of monosaccharides	p. 87
Digestion and absorption of fats	p. 87
The classification of dietary lipids	p. 87
Fatty acids	p. 89
Phospholipids	p. 91
Cholesterol and the steroids	p. 92
Digestion and absorption of triacylglycerols	p. 93
Bile salts	p. 93
Lipid absorption and chylomicron formation	p. 95
Digestion and absorption of proteins	p. 96
The amino acids	p. 97
Protein structure and denaturation of proteins	p. 99
Secondary structure of proteins	p. 99
Tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins	p. 100
Denaturation of proteins	p. 101
Protein digestion	p. 101
Activation of zymogens of proteolytic enzymes	p. 102
Absorption of the products of protein digestion	p. 103
The absorption of vitamins and minerals	p. 103
Absorption of lipid-soluble vitamins and cholesterol	p. 103
Absorption of water-soluble vitamins	p. 104
Absorption of vitamin B[subscript 12]	p. 104
Absorption of minerals	p. 105
Iron absorption	p. 106
Key points	p. 107
Energy nutrition-the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats	p. 115
Objectives	p. 115
Estimation of energy expenditure	p. 116
Indirect calorimetry and the respiratory quotient	p. 116
Long-term measurement of energy expenditure-the dual isotopically labeled water method	p. 117
Calculation of energy expenditure	p. 117
Basal metabolic rate	p. 118
Energy costs of physical activity	p. 118
Diet-induced thermogenesis	p. 120
Energy balance and changes in body weight	p. 122
Metabolic fuels in the fed and fasting states	p. 123
The fed state	p. 123
The fasting state	p. 125
Energy-yielding metabolism	p. 127
Glycolysis-the (anaerobic) metabolism of glucose	p. 127
Transfer of NADH from glycolysis into the mitochondria	p. 129
The reduction of pyruvate to lactate: anaerobic glycolysis	p. 131
The pentose phosphate pathway-an alternative to glycolysis	p. 133
The pentose phosphate pathway in red blood cells-favism	p. 134
The metabolism of pyruvate	p. 135
The oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA	p. 135
Oxidation of acetyl CoA-the citric acid cycle	p. 136
The citric acid cycle as a pathway for metabolic inter conversion	p. 139
Complete oxidation of four-and five-carbon compounds	p. 140
The metabolism of fats	p. 140
Carnitine and the transport of fatty acids into the mitochondrion	p. 142
The [beta]-oxidation of fatty acids	p. 144
Ketone bodies	p. 145
Tissue reserves of metabolic fuels	p. 147
Synthesis of fatty acids and triacylglycerols	p. 147
Unsaturated fatty acids	p. 150
Synthesis of triacylglycerol	p. 151
Plasma lipoproteins	p. 151
Chylomicrons	p. 153
Very low density lipoproteins, intermediate density lipoprotein, and low density lipoproteins	p. 154
High density lipoproteins	p. 155
Glycogen	p. 155
Glycogen utilization	p. 156
Gluconeogenesis-the synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors	p. 157
Key points	p. 158
Diet and health-nutrition and chronic diseases	p. 171
Objectives	p. 171
Chronic diseases (the "diseases of affluence")	p. 172
Types of evidence linking diet and chronic diseases	p. 172
Secular changes in diet and disease incidence	p. 173
International correlations between diet and disease incidence	p. 173
Studies of migrants	p. 174
Case-control studies	p. 175
Prospective studies	p. 176
Intervention studies	p. 177
Guidelines for a prudent diet	p. 178
Energy intake	p. 178
Fat intake	p. 179
Type of fat in the diet	p. 181
Carbohydrate intake	p. 184
Sugars in the diet	p. 184
Undigested carbohydrates (dietary fiber and nonstarch polysaccharides)	p. 185
Salt	p. 186
Alcohol	p. 186
Nutritional genomics: interactions between diet and genes	p. 188
Epigenetic modifications	p. 189
Free radicals, oxidative damage, and antioxidant nutrients	p. 189
Tissue damage by oxygen radicals	p. 190
Sources of oxygen radicals	p. 190
Reoxidation of reduced flavins	p. 190
The macrophage respiratory burst	p. 191
Formation of nitric oxide	p. 191
Nonenzymic formation of radicals	p. 191
Antioxidant nutrients and non-nutrients-protection against radical damage	p. 192
Superoxide dismutase, peroxidases, and catalase	p. 192
Glutathione peroxidase	p. 192
Vitamin E	p. 193
Carotenes	p. 193
Vitamin C	p. 194
Non-nutrient antioxidants	p. 194
Other protective compounds in foods	p. 194
Inhibition of cholesterol absorption or synthesis	p. 196
Inhibition of carcinogen activation and increased conjugation of activated metabolites	p. 196
Allyl sulfur compounds	p. 196
Glucosinolates	p. 197
Flavonoids	p. 199
Phytoestrogens	p. 199
Miscellaneous actions of phytochemicals	p. 200
Key points	p. 201
Overweight and obesity	p. 205
Objectives	p. 205
Desirable body weight	p. 205
Body mass index	p. 205
Measurement of body fat	p. 206
Determination of body density	p. 207
Determination of total body water or potassium	p. 208
Imaging techniques	p. 208
Measurement of whole-body electrical conductivity and impedance	p. 208
Measurement of skinfold thickness	p. 209
The problems of overweight and obesity	p. 209
Social problems of obesity	p. 209
The health risks of obesity	p. 211
The distribution of excess adipose tissue	p. 214
Obesity and the metabolic syndrome	p. 214
Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinism	p. 215
Adiponectin	p. 216
Macrophage infiltration of adipose tissue	p. 216
Excessive synthesis of cortisol	p. 216
The causes and treatment of obesity	p. 217
Energy expenditure	p. 217
Availability of food	p. 217
Control of appetite	p. 218
How obese people can be helped to lose weight	p. 219
Starvation	p. 219
Very low-energy diets	p. 220
Conventional diets	p. 220
Very low carbohydrate (ketogenic) diets	p. 221
Low glycemic index diets	p. 221
High fiber diets	p. 221
"Diets" that probably will not work	p. 222
Slimming patches	p. 223
Sugar substitutes	p. 223
Fat substitutes	p. 223
Pharmacological treatment of obesity	p. 223
Surgical treatment of obesity	p. 224
Help and support	p. 224
Key points	p. 225
Protein-energy malnutrition-problems of undernutrition	p. 229
Objectives	p. 229
Problems of deficiency	p. 229
Protein-energy malnutrition	p. 230
Marasmus	p. 232
Causes of marasmus and vulnerable groups of the population	p. 233
Disorders of appetite: anorexia nervosa and bulimia	p. 233
Malabsorption	p. 234
Food intolerance and allergy	p. 234
Cachexia	p. 235
Hypermetabolism in cachexia	p. 235
Increased protein catabolism in cachexia	p. 236
Kwashiorkor	p. 237
Factors in the etiology of kwashiorkor	p. 237
Rehabilitation of malnourished children	p. 238
Key points	p. 238
Protein nutrition and metabolism	p. 241
Objectives	p. 241
Nitrogen balance and protein requirements	p. 241
Dynamic equilibrium	p. 243
Mechanisms involved in tissue protein catabolism	p. 244
Protein requirements	p. 245
Protein requirements of children	p. 246
Protein losses in trauma and infection-requirements for convalescence	p. 247
Essential amino acids	p. 248
Protein quality and complementation	p. 249
Unavailable amino acids and protein digestibility	p. 250
Protein synthesis	p. 250
The structure and information content of DNA	p. 251
DNA replication	p. 253
The genetic code	p. 253
Ribonucleic acid	p. 254
Transcription to form messenger RNA	p. 256
Translation of mRNA-the process of protein synthesis	p. 257
Transfer RNA	p. 257
Protein synthesis on the ribosome	p. 258
The energy cost of protein synthesis	p. 260
Posttranslational modification of proteins	p. 261
The metabolism of amino acids	p. 261
Metabolism of the amino nitrogen	p. 262
Deamination	p. 262
Transamination	p. 263
The metabolism of ammonia	p. 264
The synthesis of urea	p. 266
Incorporation of nitrogen in biosynthesis	p. 268
The metabolism of amino acid carbon skeletons	p. 268
Key points	p. 270
The integration and control of metabolism	p. 283
Objectives	p. 283
Patterns of metabolic regulation	p. 283
Intracellular regulation of enzyme activity	p. 284
Allosteric modification of the activity of regulatory enzymes	p. 285
Control of glycolysis-the allosteric regulation of phosphofructokinase	p. 286
Feedback control of phosphofructokinase	p. 286
Feed-forward control of phosphofructokinase	p. 288
Substrate cycling	p. 289
Responses to fast-acting hormones by covalent modification of enzyme proteins	p. 289
Membrane receptors and G-proteins	p. 291
Cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP as second messengers	p. 291
Amplification of the hormone signal	p. 293
Inositol trisphosphate and diacylglycerol as second messengers	p. 294
Amplification of the hormone signal	p. 295
The insulin receptor	p. 296
Slow-acting hormones: changes in enzyme synthesis	p. 296
Amplification of the hormone signal	p. 298
Hormonal control in the fed and fasting states	p. 299
Hormonal control of adipose tissue metabolism	p. 300
Control of lipid metabolism in the liver	p. 301
Selection of fuel for muscle activity	p. 302
The effect of work intensity on muscle fuel selection	p. 302
Muscle fuel utilization in the fed and fasting states	p. 304
Regulation of fatty acid metabolism in muscle	p. 304
Diabetes mellitus-a failure of regulation of blood glucose concentration	p. 306
Adverse effects of poor glycemic control	p. 307
Key points	p. 308
Micronutrients-the vitamins and minerals	p. 317
Objectives	p. 317
The determination of requirements and reference intakes	p. 317
Dietary reference values	p. 318
Supplements and safe levels of intake	p. 324
The vitamins	p. 324
Vitamin A	p. 327
Vitamin A vitamers and international units	p. 327
Metabolism of vitamin A and provitamin A carotenoids	p. 328
Carotene dioxygenase and the formation of retinol from carotenes	p. 328
Plasma retinol-binding protein (RBP)	p. 329
Metabolic functions of vitamin A	p. 330
Vitamin A in vision	p. 330
Retinoic acid and the regulation of gene expression	p. 330
Vitamin A deficiency-night blindness and xerophthalmia	p. 332
Vitamin A requirements and reference intakes	p. 333
Assessment of vitamin A status	p. 333
Toxicity of vitamin A	p. 333
Vitamin D	p. 334
Vitamers and international units	p. 335
Absorption and metabolism of vitamin D	p. 335
Synthesis of vitamin D in the skin	p. 335
Metabolism to the active metabolite, calcitriol	p. 336
Metabolic functions of vitamin D	p. 337
The role of calcitriol in bone metabolism	p. 338
Vitamin D deficiency: rickets and osteomalacia	p. 338
Vitamin D requirements and reference intakes	p. 339
Vitamin D toxicity	p. 339
Vitamin E	p. 339
Vitamers and units of activity	p. 340
Absorption and metabolism of vitamin E	p. 340
Metabolic functions of vitamin E	p. 341
Hypocholesterolemic actions of tocotrienols	p. 342
Vitamin E deficiency	p. 342
Vitamin E requirements	p. 343
Indices of vitamin E status	p. 343
Vitamin K	p. 343
Vitamers of vitamin K	p. 344
Metabolic functions of vitamin K	p. 345
Vitamin K dependent proteins in bone	p. 346
Vitamin K deficiency and requirements	p. 346
Vitamin B[subscript 1] (thiamin)	p. 346
Absorption and metabolism of thiamin	p. 347
Metabolic functions of thiamin	p. 347
Thiamin deficiency	p. 348
Dry beriberi	p. 348
Wet beriberi	p. 349
Acute pernicious (fulminating) beriberi-shoshin beriberi	p. 349
The Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome	p. 349
Thiamin requirements	p. 349
Vitamin B[subscript 2] (riboflavin)	p. 350
Absorption and metabolism of riboflavin	p. 350
Metabolic functions of the flavin coenzymes	p. 351
Riboflavin deficiency	p. 351
Resistance to malaria in riboflavin deficiency	p. 351
Riboflavin requirements	p. 352
Niacin	p. 352
Metabolism of niacin	p. 352
Unavailable niacin in cereals	p. 353
Absorption and metabolism of niacin	p. 354
Metabolism of the nicotinamide nucleotide coenzymes	p. 354
The synthesis of nicotinamide nucleotides from tryptophan	p. 354
Metabolic functions of niacin	p. 356
The role of NAD in ADP-ribosylation	p. 357
Pellagra-a disease of tryptophan and niacin deficiency	p. 357
Niacin requirements	p. 357
Niacin toxicity	p. 358
Vitamin B[subscript 6]	p. 358
Absorption and metabolism of vitamin B[subscript 6]	p. 359
Metabolic functions of vitamin B[subscript 6]	p. 359
Vitamin B[subscript 6] deficiency	p. 359
Vitamin B[subscript 6] requirements	p. 360
Assessment of vitamin B[subscript 6] status	p. 360
The tryptophan load test	p. 360
The methionine load test	p. 361
Non-nutritional uses of vitamin B[subscript 6]	p. 361
Vitamin B[subscript 6] toxicity	p. 361
Vitamin B[subscript 12]	p. 361
Metabolic functions of vitamin B[subscript 12]	p. 363
Vitamin B[subscript 12] deficiency: pernicious anemia	p. 363
Vitamin B[subscript 12] requirements	p. 364
Assessment of vitamin B[subscript 12] status	p. 364
The Schilling test for vitamin B[subscript 12] absorption	p. 364
Folic acid	p. 364
Folate vitamers and dietary equivalence	p. 365
Absorption and metabolism of folate	p. 366
Metabolic functions of folate	p. 366
Thymidylate synthetase and dihydrofolate reductase	p. 368
Methionine synthetase and the methyl-folate trap	p. 368
Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase and hyperhomocysteinemia	p. 370
Folate deficiency: megaloblastic anemia	p. 370
Folate requirements	p. 371
Folate in pregnancy	p. 371
Higher levels of folate intake	p. 371
Assessment of folate status	p. 372
Histidine metabolism-the FIGLU test	p. 372
The dUMP suppression test	p. 372
Biotin	p. 373
Absorption and metabolism of biotin	p. 373
Metabolic functions of biotin	p. 373
Biotin deficiency and requirements	p. 374
Pantothenic acid	p. 375
Absorption, metabolism, and metabolic functions of pantothenic acid	p. 375
Coenzyme A and acyl carrier protein	p. 375
Pantothenic acid deficiency; safe and adequate levels of intake	p. 375
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)	p. 376
Absorption and metabolism of vitamin C	p. 377
Metabolic functions of vitamin C	p. 377
Copper-containing hydroxylases	p. 377
[alpha]-Ketoglutarate-linked iron-containing hydroxylases	p. 378
Vitamin C deficiency: scurvy	p. 378
Anemia in scurvy	p. 379
Vitamin C requirements	p. 379
Possible benefits of high intakes of vitamin C	p. 380
Pharmacological uses of vitamin C	p. 380
Toxicity of vitamin C	p. 381
Assessment of vitamin C status	p. 381
Minerals	p. 382
Calcium	p. 382
Osteoporosis	p. 382
Minerals that function as prosthetic groups in enzymes	p. 383
Cobalt	p. 383
Copper	p. 383
Iron	p. 383
Molybdenum	p. 384
Selenium	p. 384
Zinc	p. 385
Minerals that have a regulatory role in neurotransmission, as enzyme activators or in hormones	p. 385
Calcium	p. 385
Chromium	p. 385
Iodine	p. 385
Magnesium	p. 387
Manganese	p. 387
Sodium and potassium	p. 387
Minerals known to be essential, but whose function is unknown	p. 387
Silicon	p. 387
Vanadium	p. 387
Nickel and tin	p. 387
Minerals that have effects in the body, but whose essentiality is not established	p. 388
Fluoride	p. 388
Lithium	p. 388
Other minerals	p. 388
Key points	p. 388
Appendix	p. 391
Glossary	p. 393
Index	p. 403
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