Introduction to Research : Understanding and Applying Multiple Strategies

by DePoy & Gitlin

• ISBN13: 9780323028530
• ISBN10: 0323028535
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-05-02
• Publisher: Mosby

Summary

This clearly written, easy-to-understand book demystifies the research process and provides a rational foundation from which to critique and understand research designs and applications in health care and human service settings. Divided into five parts - Introduction, Thinking Processes, Design Approaches, Action Processes, and Improving Practice Through Inquiry - it explores multiple research strategies, proposing that naturalistic and experimental-type research strategies have equal value and contribute in complementary and distinct ways to the science of practice. Content in this edition has been significantly expanded and updated to reflect changes in the field, specifically in areas of ethics, informed consent, practice efficacy, and proposal-writing. Key terms, chapter outlines, and exercise ideas in each chapter strengthen understanding of important concepts. Detailed discussions of qualitative and quantitative methodologies offer a unique, balanced focus and comprehensive coverage of research. Specific design strategies for experimental, naturalistic, and mixed method enable readers to compare, contrast, and integrate different designs. Understandable, down-to-earth writing style makes the information more accessible and relevant. 3 new chapters comprehensively address patient boundaries, sharing research knowledge, and practice efficacy. A new appendix provides informed consent documents for use in the practice setting. New and expanded content added to chapters reflects emerging practices and hot-button issues such as ethical considerations, practical considerations, new naturalistic inquiry designs, and more. More case examples interspersed throughout the text are identified with new magnifying-glass icons to alert readers to research dilemmas or potential problems they might encounter.

Table of Contents

PART I INTRODUCTION
Research as an Important Way of Knowing	3	(10)
Why Is Research Necessary?	4	(2)
What Is Research?	6	(5)
Research as Multiple Systematic Strategies	7	(1)
Research as Thinking and Action Processes	7	(3)
Research as Four Basic Characteristics	10	(1)
Summary	11	(2)
Essentials of Research	13	(10)
Ten Essentials of Research	13	(6)
Identify a Philosophical Foundation	15	(1)
Frame a Research Problem	16	(1)
Determine Supporting Knowledge	16	(1)
Identify a Theory Base	17	(1)
Develop a Specific Question or Query	17	(1)
Select a Design Strategy	18	(1)
Set Study Boundaries	18	(1)
Obtain Information	19	(1)
Analyze Information and Draw Conclusions	19	(1)
Share and Use Research Knowledge	19	(1)
Ethical Considerations	19	(1)
Summary	20	(3)
PART II THINKING PROCESSES
Philosophical Foundations	23	(11)
Philosophical Foundation of Experimental-Type Research	24	(1)
Philosophical Foundation of Naturalistic Inquiry	24	(1)
Implications of Philosophical Differences for Design	25	(1)
Research Traditions	26	(1)
Experimental-Type Research	26	(1)
Naturalistic Inquiry	27	(1)
Integrating Two Research Traditions	27	(4)
Selecting a Research Tradition and Design Strategy	31	(1)
Purpose of Research	31	(1)
Preference for Knowing	32	(1)
Level of Knowledge Development	32	(1)
Summary	32	(2)
Framing the Problem	34	(7)
Identifying a Topic	35	(3)
Professional Experience	36	(1)
Societal Trends	36	(1)
Professional Trends	36	(1)
Research Studies	37	(1)
Existing Theory	37	(1)
Framing a Research Problem	38	(2)
Interest, Relevance, and Need	38	(1)
Research Purpose	38	(1)
Epistemology (Preferred Way of Knowing)	39	(1)
Resources	40	(1)
Summary	40	(1)
Developing a Knowledge Base Through Review of the Literature	41	(13)
Why Review the Literature?	42	(3)
Determine What Research Has Been Conducted on the Topic of Inquiry	42	(1)
Determine Level of Theory and Knowledge Development Relevant to Your Project	43	(1)
Determine Relevance of the Current Knowledge Base to Your Problem Area	44	(1)
Provide a Rationale for Selection of the Research Strategy	45	(1)
How to Conduct a Literature Search	45	(6)
Step 1: Determine When to Conduct a Search	46	(1)
Step 2: Delimit What Is Searched	46	(1)
Step 3: Access Databases for Periodicals, Books, and Documents	47	(2)
Step 4: Organize Information	49	(1)
Step 5: Critically Evaluate the Literature	50	(1)
Step 6: Write the Literature Review	50	(1)
Summary	51	(3)
Theory in Research	54	(10)
Why Is Theory Important?	54	(1)
What Is Theory?	55	(3)
Levels of Abstraction	56	(2)
Role of Theory in Design Selection	58	(1)
Theory in Experimental-Type Research	59	(2)
Theory in Naturalistic Inquiry	61	(2)
Summary	63	(1)
Formulating Research Questions and Queries	64	(12)
Research Questions in Experimental-Type Design	65	(5)
Level 1: Questions That Seek to Describe Phenomena	65	(2)
Level 2: Questions That Explore Relationships Among Phenomena	67	(1)
Level 3: Questions That Test Knowledge	67	(1)
Developing Experimental-Type Research Questions	68	(1)
Hypotheses	68	(2)
Research Queries in Naturalistic Inquiry	70	(2)
Classic Ethnography	71	(1)
Phenomenology	71	(1)
Grounded Theory	72	(1)
Developing Naturalistic Research Queries	72	(1)
Integrating Research Approaches	72	(2)
Summary	74	(2)
Language and Thinking Processes	76	(19)
Experimental-Type Language and Thinking Processes	77	(10)
Sequence of Experimental-Type Research	78	(1)
Structure of Experimental-Type Research	78	(2)
Plan of Design	80	(6)
Experimental-Type Design Summary	86	(1)
Naturalistic Language and Thinking Processes	87	(4)
Purpose	87	(1)
Context Specificity	87	(1)
Complexity and Pluralistic Perspective of Reality	87	(1)
Transferability of Findings	88	(1)
Flexibility	88	(1)
Language	89	(1)
Emic and Etic Perspectives	89	(1)
Gathering Information and Analysis	90	(1)
Naturalistic Design Summary	90	(1)
Integrated and Mixed-Method Approaches	91	(1)
Summary	91	(4)
PART III DESIGN APPROACHES
Experimental-Type Designs	95	(16)
True-Experimental Designs	96	(2)
Randomization	97	(1)
Control Group	98	(1)
Manipulation	98	(1)
True-Experimental Design Variations	98	(4)
Posttest-Only Designs	99	(1)
Solomon Four-Group Designs	99	(1)
Factorial Designs	100	(1)
Counterbalance Designs	101	(1)
True-Experimental Design Summary	101	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	102	(2)
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs	102	(1)
Interrupted Time Series Designs	103	(1)
Combined Design	103	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Design Summary	103	(1)
Pre-Experimental Designs	104	(1)
One-Shot Case Study	104	(1)
Pretest-Posttest Design	104	(1)
Static Group Comparison	104	(1)
Pre-Experimental Design Summary	105	(1)
Nonexperimental Designs	105	(1)
Survey Designs	105	(1)
Passive Observation Designs	105	(1)
Ex Post Facto Designs	105	(1)
Nonexperimental Design Summary	106	(1)
Experimental-Type Meta-Analysis	106	(1)
Criteria for Selecting Appropriate and Adequate Designs	107	(2)
Summary	109	(2)
Naturalistic Inquiry	111	(16)
Endogenous Research	112	(1)
Participatory Action Research	113	(2)
Critical Theory	115	(1)
Phenomenology	116	(1)
Heuristic Research	116	(1)
Ethnography	117	(1)
Narrative Inquiry	118	(2)
Life History	120	(1)
Grounded Theory	121	(1)
Naturalistic Meta-Analysis	121	(1)
Summary	122	(5)
PART IV ACTION PROCESSES
Setting the Boundaries of a Study	127	(6)
Why Set Boundaries to a Study?	127	(2)
Implications of Boundary Setting	129	(1)
Specifying Who Participates and Who Does Not Participate	130	(1)
General Guidelines for Bounding Studies	131	(1)
Subjects, Respondents, Informants, or Participants	132	(1)
Summary	132	(1)
Protecting the Boundaries	133	(12)
Principles for Protecting Human Subjects	134	(2)
Full Disclosure	134	(1)
Confidentiality	134	(2)
Voluntary Participation	136	(1)
Belmont Report	136	(1)
Institutional Review Board	137	(2)
Three Levels of Review	138	(1)
Informed Consent Process	139	(1)
Study Approval and Monitoring	140	(1)
Developing an Informed Consent Document	141	(1)
Involving Vulnerable Populations	141	(1)
Specialized Oversight of Experimental-Type Designs	142	(1)
Summary	143	(2)
Boundary Setting in Experimental-Type Designs	145	(12)
Sampling Process	146	(2)
Probability Sampling	148	(4)
Simple Random Sampling	150	(1)
Systematic Sampling	151	(1)
Stratified Random Sampling	151	(1)
Cluster Sampling	152	(1)
Nonprobability Methods	152	(2)
Convenience Sampling	153	(1)
Purposive Sampling	153	(1)
Snowball Sampling	153	(1)
Quota Sampling	153	(1)
Comparing Sample to Population	154	(1)
Determining Sample Size	154	(2)
Summary	156	(1)
Boundary Setting in Naturalistic Designs	157	(10)
Ways of Setting Boundaries	158	(3)
Geographical Location	158	(1)
Cultural Groups	159	(1)
Personal Experience	159	(1)
Concepts	160	(1)
Involving Research Participants	161	(3)
Maximum Variation	162	(1)
Homogeneous Selection	162	(1)
Theory-Based Selection	162	(1)
Confirming and Disconfirming Cases	162	(1)
Extreme or Deviant Case	163	(1)
Typical Case	163	(1)
How Many Study Participants?	163	(1)
Process of Setting Boundaries and Selecting Informants	164	(1)
Ethical Considerations	165	(1)
Summary	166	(1)
Collecting Information	167	(7)
Principles of Information Collection	168	(1)
Watching, Listening, and Recording	168	(1)
Asking	169	(2)
Interviews	169	(1)
Questionnaires	170	(1)
Obtaining and Examining Materials	171	(1)
Unobtrusive Methodology	171	(1)
Secondary Data Analysis	172	(1)
Artifact Review	172	(1)
Summary	172	(2)
Measurement in Experimental-Type Research	174	(17)
Measurement Process	175	(1)
Levels of Measurement	176	(3)
Nominal	177	(1)
Ordinal	177	(1)
Interval	178	(1)
Ratio	178	(1)
Determining Appropriate Level	178	(1)
Measurement Scales	179	(1)
Likert-Type Scale	179	(1)
Guttman Scale	179	(1)
Semantic Differential Scale	180	(1)
Confidence in Instruments	180	(5)
Reliability	180	(3)
Validity	183	(2)
Considerations in Selecting a Measure	185	(3)
Purpose of Assessment	185	(1)
Psychometric Properties	186	(1)
Population	186	(1)
Information Sources	187	(1)
Item Selection	188	(1)
Response Set	188	(1)
Constructing an Instrument	188	(1)
Administering the Instrument	189	(1)
Summary	189	(2)
Gathering Information in Naturalistic Inquiry	191	(19)
Four Information-Gathering Principles	192	(3)
Investigator Involvement	192	(1)
Information Collection and Analysis	193	(1)
Time Commitment in the Field	193	(1)
Multiple Information-Gathering Strategies	194	(1)
Overview of Principles	195	(1)
Information-Gathering Process	195	(3)
Selecting the Context	195	(1)
Gaining Access	196	(1)
``Learning the Ropes,''	197	(1)
Information-Gathering Strategies	198	(4)
Watching and Listening	198	(1)
Asking	199	(1)
Four Components of Asking Strategies	200	(2)
Examining Materials	202	(1)
Recording Information	202	(3)
Field Notes	202	(1)
Voice Recording	203	(1)
Video Imaging	204	(1)
Accuracy in Collecting Information	205	(2)
Multiple Data Gatherers	205	(1)
Triangulation (Crystallization)	205	(1)
Saturation	205	(1)
Member Checking	206	(1)
Reflexivity	206	(1)
Audit Trail	207	(1)
Peer Debriefing	207	(1)
Summary	207	(3)
Preparing and Organizing Data	210	(9)
Managing Data in Experimental-Type Research	211	(3)
Managing Data in Naturalistic Inquiry	214	(3)
Practical Considerations	217	(1)
Summary	217	(2)
Statistical Analysis for Experimental-Type Research	219	(22)
What Is Statistical Analysis?	220	(1)
Level 1: Descriptive Statistics	221	(10)
Frequency Distribution	222	(2)
Measures of Central Tendency	224	(2)
Measures of Variability	226	(3)
Bivariate Descriptive Statistics	229	(2)
Level 2: Drawing Inferences	231	(7)
Action 1: State the Hypothesis	233	(1)
Action 2: Select a Significance Level	233	(1)
Action 3: Compute a Calculated Value	234	(3)
Action 4: Obtain a Critical Value	237	(1)
Action 5: Reject or Fail to Reject the Null Hypothesis	238	(1)
Level 3: Association and Relationships	238	(1)
Summary	239	(2)
Analysis in Naturalistic Inquiry	241	(12)
Strategies and Stages in Naturalistic Analysis	242	(1)
Stage One: Analysis in the Field	243	(4)
Engaging in Thinking Process	244	(1)
Developing Categories	244	(2)
Developing Taxonomies	246	(1)
Discovering Underlying Themes	246	(1)
Stage Two: Formal Report Preparation	247	(1)
Examples of Analytical Processes	247	(2)
Grounded Theory	247	(1)
Ethnography	248	(1)
Accuracy and Rigor in Analysis	249	(2)
Triangulation (Crystallization)	250	(1)
Saturation	250	(1)
Member Checking	250	(1)
Reflexivity	251	(1)
Audit Trail	251	(1)
Peer Debriefing	251	(1)
Summary	251	(2)
Sharing Research Knowledge Before the Study	253	(12)
Reasons for Sharing Before Field Engagement	253	(1)
Where to Seek Support for a Research Idea	254	(2)
Who Reads a Proposal?	256	(1)
Writing a Research Proposal	256	(7)
Basic Principles	256	(1)
Common Elements of a Research Proposal	257	(6)
Special Considerations	263	(1)
Preparing an Experimental-Type Proposal	263	(1)
Preparing a Naturalistic Proposal	263	(1)
Preparing a Mixed-Method Proposal	264	(1)
Summary	264	(1)
Sharing Research Knowledge During and After the Study	265	(12)
Writing Guidelines	266	(1)
Clarity	266	(1)
Purpose	266	(1)
Multiple Audiences	266	(1)
Citations	267	(1)
Writing an Experimental-Type Report	267	(2)
Writing a Naturalistic Report	269	(2)
Ethnography	270	(1)
Phenomenology	270	(1)
Writing an Integrated Report	271	(1)
Accessibility	271	(1)
Linguistic Sensitivity	271	(1)
Dissemination	272	(1)
Sharing Written Reports	272	(1)
Publishing Your Work	272	(1)
Sharing Your Research Through Other Methods	272	(1)
Summary	273	(4)
PART V IMPROVING PRACTICE THROUGH INQUIRY
Case Study Designs	277	(7)
What Is a Case Study?	277	(1)
Structure of Case Studies	278	(1)
Structural Dimension	279	(1)
Number of Cases	279	(1)
Design Sequence	279	(3)
Experimental-Type Approach	280	(2)
Naturalistic Approach	282	(1)
Mixed-Method Approach	282	(1)
Summary	282	(2)
Practice Efficacy	284	(10)
Evidence-Based Practice	284	(4)
Definitions and Models	285	(1)
Approaches to Identifying Evidence	286	(1)
Limitations of Evidence-Based Practice	287	(1)
Clinical Trial Methodology	288	(3)
Phases of Clinical Trials	288	(1)
Binding (Masking)	289	(1)
Randomization Scheme	290	(1)
Treatment Fidelity	290	(1)
Evaluation Practice	291	(1)
Problem and Need Clarification	291	(1)
Reflexive Intervention	291	(1)
Outcome Assessment	292	(1)
Summary	292	(2)
Stories from the Field	294	(5)
Just Beginning	294	(1)
``I'll Do It for You, Sweetie,''	295	(1)
In Search of Significance!	295	(1)
Is Health Care Effective?	295	(1)
Elevator Insight	295	(1)
A ``Good'' Research Subject	295	(1)
A ``Bad'' Research Subject	296	(1)
Native American?	296	(1)
The Pearson, or the Moral of the Coding, Story	296	(1)
If You Can't Deliver, Don't Ask	297	(1)
Don't Ask if You're Not Prepared to Answer	297	(1)
No Detail Too Small	297	(1)
Wow, You Got It!	297	(2)
Appendix
Informed Consent Documents	299	(18)
Glossary	317