Ion-Solid Interactions: Fundamentals and Applications

by Michael Nastasi , James Mayer , James K. Hirvonen

• ISBN13: 9780521616065
• ISBN10: 0521616069
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2004-12-02
• Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Summary

Modern technology depends on materials with precisely controlled properties. Ion beams are a favoured method to achieve controlled modification of surface and near-surface regions. In every integrated circuit production line, for example, there are ion implantation systems. In addition to integrated circuit technology, ion beams are used to modify the mechanical, tribological and chemical properties of metal, intermetallic and ceramic materials without altering their bulk properties. Ion-solid interactions are the foundation that underlies the broad application of ion beams to the modification of materials. This text is designed to cover the fundamentals and applications of ion-solid interactions and is aimed at graduate students and researchers interested in electronic devices, surface engineering, reactor and nuclear engineering and material science issues associated with metastable phase synthesis.

Table of Contents

List of symbols	xix
Preface	xxv
General features and fundamental concepts	1	(13)
Introduction	1	(3)
Range distributions	4	(1)
Lattice disorder	5	(1)
Atomic and planar densities	6	(2)
Energy and particles	8	(3)
The Bohr velocity and radius	11	(3)
Suggested reading	12	(1)
Problems	12	(2)
Interatomic potentials	14	(25)
Introduction	14	(1)
Interatomic forces	14	(1)
Short- and long-range interatomic forces	15	(1)
Model interatomic potentials	16	(1)
Hard-sphere potential	16	(1)
Square-well potential	17	(1)
Inverse power potential	17	(1)
Lennard-Jones potential	17	(1)
Interatomic forces in solids	17	(2)
Physical properties of a solid	19	(4)
Binding energy	19	(1)
Elastic modulus	20	(1)
Thermal properties	21	(2)
Energetic collisions of atoms and ions	23	(2)
Thomas--Fermi statistical model	25	(2)
Solutions of the TF equation	27	(1)
The TF screening function (approximations)	27	(5)
Interatomic potentials	32	(1)
Universal interatomic potential	33	(6)
References	37	(1)
Suggested reading	37	(1)
Problems	37	(2)
Dynamics of binary elastic collisions	39	(23)
Introduction	39	(1)
Classical scattering theory	40	(1)
Kinematics of elastic collisions	41	(3)
Classical two-particle scattering	44	(5)
Motion under a central force	49	(6)
Conservation of angular momentum	50	(2)
Energy conservation in a central force	52	(1)
Angular orbital momentum and the impact parameter	52	(3)
The classical scattering integral	55	(4)
Distance of closest approach	59	(3)
References	60	(1)
Suggested reading	60	(1)
Problems	61	(1)
Cross-section	62	(26)
Introduction	62	(1)
Angular differential scattering cross-section	63	(8)
Energy-transfer differential scattering cross-section	71	(3)
Power law potentials and the impulse approximation	74	(4)
Power law energy-transfer cross-section	78	(2)
Reduced cross-section	80	(3)
Hard-sphere potential	83	(5)
References	85	(1)
Suggested reading	86	(1)
Problems	86	(2)
Ion stopping	88	(27)
Introduction	88	(1)
The energy-loss process	89	(1)
Nuclear stopping	90	(2)
Nuclear stopping: reduced notation	92	(3)
ZBL nuclear stopping cross-section	95	(3)
ZBL universal scattering formula	98	(1)
Electronic stopping	99	(16)
Effective charge of moving ions	100	(1)
High-energy electronic energy loss	101	(4)
Low-energy electronic energy loss	105	(1)
Fermi-Teller model	105	(1)
The Firsov and Lindhard--Scharff models	106	(5)
Z1 oscillations in electronic stopping	111	(2)
References	113	(1)
Suggested reading	113	(1)
Problems	114	(1)
Ion range and range distribution	115	(26)
Range concepts	115	(2)
Range distributions	117	(3)
Calculations	120	(13)
Range	121	(3)
Range approximations	124	(4)
Projected range	128	(2)
Range straggling	130	(1)
Polyatomic targets	131	(2)
Channeling	133	(8)
General principles	134	(4)
The maximum range, Rmax	138	(1)
References	139	(1)
Suggested reading	139	(1)
Problems	139	(2)
Radiation damage and spikes	141	(50)
Introduction	141	(1)
Radiation damage and displacement energy	141	(6)
Displacements produced by a primary knock-on	147	(5)
PKA damage energy	152	(3)
The Norgett, Robinson, and Torrens (NRT) model of damage energy	154	(1)
Ion irradiation damage	155	(10)
Displacements produced by an energetic ion	155	(5)
Ion damage energy	160	(2)
Spatial distribution of deposited energy	162	(3)
Damage production rate	165	(2)
Primary recoil spectrum	167	(1)
Fractional damage function	168	(1)
Displacement damage in polyatomic materials	168	(5)
Damage energy	169	(2)
Displacement damage	171	(2)
Replacement collision sequences	173	(3)
Spikes	176	(15)
Mean free path and the displacement spike	176	(4)
Thermal spike	180	(1)
Deposited energy density, θD	181	(1)
The cascade volume and the deposited energy density	182	(3)
Deposited damage energy and materials properties	185	(2)
References	187	(1)
Suggested reading	188	(1)
Problems	189	(2)
Ion--solid simulations and diffusion	191	(27)
Introduction	191	(1)
Monte Carlo simulations	191	(9)
An example of a Monte Carlo program, PIPER	192	(1)
Nuclear scattering	192	(1)
Electronic energy loss	193	(1)
Calculation procedure	194	(3)
An example from TRIM	197	(3)
Molecular dynamic simulations	200	(4)
Irradiation enhanced diffusion	204	(5)
Diffusion	204	(1)
Radiation enhanced diffusion (RED)	205	(4)
Diffusion in thermal spikes	209	(9)
References	216	(1)
Suggested reading	217	(1)
Sputtering	218	(36)
Introduction	218	(1)
Sputtering of single element targets	219	(4)
Nuclear stopping cross-section	221	(1)
Deposited energy	222	(1)
Sputtering yield	223	(1)
Semi-empirical formula for sputtering of single elemental targets	223	(2)
Sputtering yield of monoatomic solids at glancing angles	225	(3)
Ion implantation and the steady-state concentration	228	(1)
Sputtering of alloys and compounds	229	(6)
Preferential sputtering	230	(2)
Composition changes	232	(1)
Composition depth profiles	233	(2)
High-dose ion implantation	235	(3)
Concentrations of implanted species	238	(5)
Si implanted with 45 ke V Pt ions	239	(1)
Pt implanted with 45 ke V Si ions	240	(1)
PtSi implanted with Si	241	(2)
Factors that influence concentrations in high dose ion implantation	243	(1)
Sputtering from spikes	244	(3)
Computer simulation	247	(7)
References	250	(1)
Suggested reading	251	(1)
Problems	252	(2)
Order--disorder and ion implantation metallurgy	254	(41)
Irradiation induced chemical order--disorder	254	(8)
The long-range order parameter, SLR	254	(1)
Irradiation induced disordering: point defects	255	(2)
Irradiation induced disordering: dense cascades	257	(4)
Irradiation enhanced thermal reordering	261	(1)
Ion implantation metallurgy: introduction	262	(3)
Ion implantation metallurgy and phase formation	265	(21)
Simple equilibrium binary phase diagrams: solid solutions	265	(4)
Rapid thermal quenched metal systems: metastable alloys	269	(3)
Lattice location of implanted impurity atoms	272	(1)
Replacement collisions: kinematic picture	273	(3)
Hume-Rothery rules	276	(3)
Miedema rules	279	(2)
Impurity atom--lattice defect interactions	281	(5)
Ion implantation: high-dose regime	286	(9)
Geometry effects	288	(1)
Surface chemistry effects	288	(2)
References	290	(2)
Suggested reading	292	(1)
Problems	293	(2)
Ion beam mixing	295	(37)
Introduction	295	(4)
Ballistic mixing	299	(6)
Recoil mixing	300	(2)
Cascade mixing	302	(3)
Thermodynamic effects in ion mixing	305	(14)
Heat of mixing	307	(6)
Influence of cohesive energy	313	(2)
Model of mixing	315	(3)
Cascade parameters	318	(1)
Thermally assisted ion mixing	319	(3)
Liquid state diffusion	321	(1)
Transition temperature	322	(1)
Phase formation	323	(9)
Kinetics	324	(1)
Nucleation	324	(2)
Thermodynamics	326	(2)
References	328	(2)
Suggested reading	330	(1)
Problems	330	(2)
Phase transformations	332	(31)
Introduction	332	(2)
Energetics of phase transformations and ion irradiation	334	(8)
Metastable phases	335	(1)
Energy differences between amorphous and crystalline states	336	(2)
Enthalpy of the order--disorder transformation	338	(4)
Irradiation induced defects and damage accumulation	342	(6)
Vacancy--interstitial defects	343	(1)
Anti-site defects	343	(1)
Dislocations	344	(2)
Strain energy and elastic instability	346	(2)
Phase transformations by cascades and thermal spikes	348	(3)
Cascade recovery: driving force	349	(1)
Cascade recovery: nucleation constraints	350	(1)
Cascade recovery: kinetic constraints	351	(1)
Kinetics and the formation of metastable phases	351	(3)
Amorphous phase	354	(5)
Complex unit cell	354	(1)
Width of the phase field	355	(4)
Overview	359	(4)
References	359	(2)
Suggested reading	361	(1)
Problems	361	(2)
Ion beam assisted deposition	363	(45)
Introduction	363	(2)
Microstructure development during the growth of metallic films	365	(1)
Zone I, Ts < 0.15 Tm	365	(1)
Zone T, 0.15 Tm < Ts < 0.3 Tm	366	(1)
Zone II, 0.3 Tm < Ts < 0.5 Tm	366	(1)
Zone III, Ts > 0.5 Tm	366	(1)
Non-reactive IBAD processing: effect of ions on film growth	366	(33)
Microstructure development during IBAD	370	(4)
Densification	374	(1)
Densification: Monte Carlo calculations	374	(5)
Densification: molecular dynamic calculations	379	(1)
Intrinsic stress	380	(4)
Grain size	384	(3)
Texture	387	(3)
Epitaxy	390	(6)
Adhesion	396	(3)
Reactive IBAD processing: compound synthesis	399	(9)
Reactive IBAD: processing model	399	(1)
Reactive IBAD: The Hubler--van Vechten model	400	(3)
References	403	(3)
Problems	406	(2)
Applications of ion beam processing techniques	408	(47)
Introduction	408	(1)
Ion implantation -- advantages and limitations of the technique	408	(2)
Tribology	410	(5)
Nitrogen implantation	412	(1)
Dual ion implantation and ion beam mixing	412	(1)
Industrial tribological applications	413	(2)
Fatigue	415	(3)
High-temperature oxidation	418	(2)
Aqueous corrosion	420	(5)
Catalysis: solid/gas, solid/liquid interface reactions	425	(2)
Ceramics	427	(1)
Polymers	427	(1)
Applications and research areas of IBAD processing	428	(18)
Metastable compound formation	429	(4)
Optical and electronic coatings	433	(1)
Dielectric coatings	434	(2)
Rugate filter production	436	(1)
Transparent conducting films	437	(1)
Reflective coatings	438	(1)
Thermochromic VO2 coatings	439	(1)
Magnetic thin films	439	(1)
Diffusion barriers	440	(1)
Tribological coatings	440	(1)
Hard coatings	440	(2)
Solid lubricant coatings	442	(2)
Aqueous corrosion resistant coatings	444	(2)
Ionized cluster beam (ICB) deposition	446	(9)
References	450	(3)
Suggested reading	453	(2)
Ion beam system features	455	(28)
Introduction	455	(1)
Directed beam ion implantation	456	(11)
Ion implantation ion sources	456	(1)
Freeman ion source	457	(2)
High-temperature ion source (CHORDIS)	459	(1)
MEVVA ion source	459	(2)
Ion beam mass analysis	461	(1)
Ion beam transport, beam scanning, target manipulation	462	(1)
Dose determination	463	(1)
Substrate temperature considerations	463	(4)
Plasma source ion implantation	467	(7)
Ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD) system ion sources	474	(6)
Broad-beam gridded ion sources	474	(4)
End--Hall source	478	(1)
Electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) source	479	(1)
Physical vapor deposition systems and monitors	480	(3)
References	481	(1)
Suggested reading	482	(1)
Appendix A Crystallography	483	(8)
Crystallography and notation	483	(2)
Directions and planes	485	(1)
Spacing between planes of the same Miller indices	486	(2)
Interatomic spacing	488	(1)
Plane spacings	488	(3)
Appendix B Table of the elements	491	(7)
Appendix C Density of states	498	(5)
Wavelike properties of electrons	498	(1)
Standing waves and an electron in a box	499	(1)
Density of states	500	(3)
Suggested reading	502	(1)
Appendix D Derivation of the Thomas--Fermi differential equation	503	(2)
Appendix E Center-of-mass and laboratory scattering angles	505	(4)
Suggested reading	508	(1)
Appendix F Miedema's semi-empirical model for the enthalpy of formation in the liquid and solid states	509	(10)
Introduction	509	(2)
Concentration-dependent enthalpy of formation	511	(3)
Alloys of two transition metals	512	(1)
Alloys of two non-transition metals	513	(1)
Alloys of two polyvalent non-transition metals and gaseous elements	513	(1)
Alloys of transition metals with non-transition metals	514	(1)
Solutions of infinite dilution	514	(1)
Amorphous solid solutions	515	(4)
References	518	(1)
Suggested reading	518	(1)
Appendix G Implantation metallurgy -- study of equilibrium alloys	519	(10)
Study of metallurgical phenomena	519	(1)
Diffusion and the composition profile	519	(1)
Experimental determination of diffusion coefficients	520	(5)
Solid solubilities	525	(4)
References	528	(1)
Appendix H Physical constants, conversions and useful combinations	529	(2)
Index	531