Landscape Surveying

by Field, Harry L.

• ISBN13: 9781401809614
• ISBN10: 1401809618
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2003-07-14
• Publisher: CENGAGE Delmar Learning

Summary

For professionals in agricultural mechanics, agricultural engineering or technology, it is also useful in landscape architecture and forestry programs as well as a reference for secondary agricultural instructors, this book presents the fundamentals of surveying. The principles and methods of surveying are used by many occupations ranging from simple, visual determination of a difference in elevation to more complex use of topographic maps, property boundaries, and the more precise measuring of distances and angles without assuming advanced math or engineering skills. This book helps readers determine which method is most suitable to a variety of projects.

Table of Contents

1 Principles of Land Measurement and Surveying	1	(16)
Introduction	2	(1)
What is Surveying?	2	(1)
History of Surveying	2	(2)
Surveying Terms	4	(5)
Oblate Spheroid	4	(1)
Ellipsoid	4	(1)
Level	4	(1)
Level Surface	5	(1)
Difference between a Plane and a Level Surface	5	(1)
Vertical Lines	5	(1)
Vertical Plane	5	(1)
Horizontal Lines	5	(1)
Horizontal Plane	6	(1)
Horizontal Distance	6	(1)
Angle	6	(1)
Horizontal Angle	7	(1)
Vertical Angle	7	(1)
Benchmark	7	(1)
Elevation	7	(1)
Difference in Elevation	8	(1)
Backsight	8	(1)
Foresight	8	(1)
Turning Point	8	(1)
Common Surveying Methods	9	(1)
Geodetic Surveying	9	(1)
Plane Surveying	9	(1)
Common Types of Surveys	9	(3)
Distance Measurement	9	(1)
Angle Measurement	10	(1)
Differential Surveys	10	(1)
Profile Surveys	10	(1)
Topographic Surveys	10	(1)
Property Surveys	10	(1)
Construction Surveys	11	(1)
Traverse	11	(1)
Data Use	12	(1)
Accuracy and Precision	12	(1)
Field Notes	13	(1)
Field Books	14	(1)
Error and Error Control	14	(1)
Random Error	14	(1)
Systematic Errors	15	(1)
Summary	15	(1)
Student Activity	16	(1)
2 Equipment	17	(21)
Introduction	18	(1)
Categories of Equipment	18	(1)
Distance-Measuring Equipment	18	(1)
Instruments for Measuring Angles and Elevations	18	(1)
Accessories	18	(1)
Equipment for Measuring Distance	18	(3)
Tapes and Chains	18	(3)
First Foot Graduated Tapes	19	(1)
Extended Foot Tape	19	(1)
Fully Graduated Tape	20	(1)
Using Surveyor's Chains	20	(1)
Odometer Wheel	21	(1)
Rangefinder	21	(1)
Optical Rangefinder	21	(1)
Using an Optical Rangefinder	21	(1)
Electronic Rangefinder	22	(1)
Electronic Distance Measuring	22	(1)
Laser Rangefinder	22	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of EDMs	23	(1)
Equipment for Measuring Angles and Elevations	23	(6)
Hand Levels	23	(1)
Abney Level	24	(1)
Using an Abney Level	24	(1)
Dumpy Level	24	(2)
Using the Dumpy Level	24	(1)
Leveling a Four-Legged Instrument	25	(1)
Adjusting for Parallax	25	(1)
Automatic Level	26	(1)
Laser Levels	26	(1)
Transits	27	(1)
Using a Transit	27	(1)
Vernier Scales	27	(1)
Other Instruments	28	(1)
Electronic Transits	28	(1)
Construction Transit	28	(1)
Theodolite	28	(1)
Total Station	28	(1)
Accessories	29	(6)
Pins	29	(1)
Field Book	29	(2)
Standard Field Book Format	30	(1)
Rod	31	(2)
Direct Reading a Rod	32	(1)
Indirect Rod Reading	32	(1)
Extending the Rod	32	(1)
Using a High Rod	32	(1)
Reading a Rod	32	(1)
Target	33	(1)
Range Poles	34	(1)
Stakes/ Flags	34	(1)
Surveyor's Nails	34	(1)
Plumb Bob	34	(1)
Two-Way Radios	35	(1)
Summary	35	(1)
Student Activity	35	(3)
3 Rectangular System of Land Identification	38	(11)
Introduction	39	(1)
Metes and Bounds	39	(8)
Rectangular System of Land Measurement	39	(2)
Initial Point	40	(1)
Latitude and Longitude	40	(1)
Baseline	41	(1)
Principle Meridian	42	(1)
Standard Parallel	43	(1)
Guide Meridians	43	(1)
Convergence	44	(1)
Quadrangle	44	(1)
Townships	44	(1)
Sections	44	(7)
Parts of a Section	45	(1)
Lots	46	(1)
Student Activity	47	(2)
4 Distance Measuring	49	(12)
Introduction	50	(1)
Selecting the Best Method	50	(1)
Horizontal and Slope Distance	51	(1)
Difference in Elevation	51	(1)
Percent Slope	51	(1)
Vertical Angle	51	(1)
Equipment for Measuring Distance	52	(6)
Pacing	52	(1)
Limitations of Pacing	53	(1)
Chaining	53	(2)
Chaining Slope Distance	53	(1)
Chaining True Horizontal Distance	54	(1)
Measuring Less Than a Full Chain	54	(1)
Breaking Chain	54	(1)
Chaining Errors	54	(1)
Limitations of Chaining	55	(1)
Odometer Wheel	55	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Odometer Wheels	56	(1)
Distance by Stadia	56	(2)
Instrument Factor	56	(1)
Measuring Distance by Stadia	56	(2)
Half-Stadia	58	(1)
Advantages of Stadia	58	(1)
Disadvantages of Stadia	58	(1)
Correction Factors	58	(2)
Calibrating an Odometer Wheel	59	(1)
Summary	60	(1)
Student Activity	60	(1)
5 Differential Leveling	61	(16)
Introduction	62	(1)
Leveling	62	(1)
Leveling with an Instrument	63	(2)
Reference Line	64	(1)
Reference Plane	64	(1)
Balancing the sights	65	(1)
Differential Leveling	65	(10)
Comparing Points	66	(1)
Establishing Benchmarks	66	(1)
Turning Points	66	(3)
Differential Example	69	(1)
Differential Data Table	69	(1)
Three Checks for Error	70	(2)
Closing the Loop	70	(2)
Note Check	72	(1)
Allowable Error of Closure	72	(1)
Differential Leveling Example	72	(3)
Summary	75	(1)
Student Activity	76	(1)
6 Profile Leveling	77	(11)
Introduction	78	(1)
Intermediate Foresights	78	(3)
Error Control with Intermediate Foresights	79	(1)
Three-Wire Leveling	79	(1)
Double Reading	79	(1)
Plunging the Telescope	80	(1)
Selecting Intermediate Foresights	80	(1)
Defining Man-Made and Natural Features	81	(1)
Station Identification	82	(1)
Profile Leveling	82	(4)
Profile Benchmarks	82	(1)
Profile Example	83	(1)
Plotting Profile Data	84	(1)
Plotting the Profile	84	(1)
Profiles with Angles	85	(1)
Summary	86	(1)
Student Activity	87	(1)
7 Angles	88	(23)
Introduction	89	(1)
Angles	89	(1)
DD and DMS	89	(1)
Adding and Subtracting with DMS	89	(1)
Converting between DD and DMS	90	(1)
Manual Conversion between DD and DMS	90	(1)
Horizontal and Vertical Angles	90	(1)
Horizontal Angle	90	(1)
Vertical Angle	90	(1)
Deflection Angle vs. Interior Angle	91	(1)
Direct and Indirect Methods of Measuring Angles	91	(13)
Indirect Methods of Measuring Angles	91	(7)
Chord Method for Laying out a 90-Degree Angle	92	(1)
Procedure for Chord Method	92	(1)
String Chord Method for Establishing a 90-Degree Angle	92	(1)
3-4-5 Method for Laying out a 90-Degree Angle	93	(1)
Procedures for 3-4-5 Method with One Tape	93	(1)
Procedures for 3-4-5 Method with Two Tapes	94	(1)
Tape-Sine Method for Laying out and Measuring Angles	94	(4)
Trigonometric Functions	94	(1)
Selecting the Right Trig Functions	95	(1)
Procedure for Laying out an Angle using the Tape-Sine Method	96	(1)
Procedure for Measuring an Existing Angle with Tape-Sine	97	(1)
Direct Methods of Measuring of Angles	98	(14)
Centering the Instrument	98	(1)
Example of Centering Error	98	(1)
Procedures for Centering an Instrument	99	(1)
Zero Setting the Instrument	99	(1)
Aligning the Instrument on the Backsight	100	(1)
Turning the Angle	100	(1)
Recording the Angle	100	(12)
Determining the Least Count	101	(1)
Least Count of Vernier Angle Scales	101	(2)
Reading Double Verniers	103	(1)
Azimuths and Bearings	104	(2)
Azimuths	106	(1)
Bearings	106	(1)
Converting Azimuths and Bearings	106	(3)
Summary	109	(1)
Student Activity	110	(1)
8 Topographical Surveying	111	(28)
Introduction	112	(1)
Topographic Maps	112	(2)
Topographic Map Symbols	112	(1)
Contour Lines	112	(2)
Characteristics of Contour Lines	112	(2)
Collecting Information for Topographic Maps	114	(3)
Map Scales	115	(1)
Number of Stations	115	(1)
Determining the Number of Stations	115	(1)
Instrument Site	116	(1)
Control Point	116	(1)
Interpolating	117	(1)
Interpolating for a Grid	117	(1)
Interpolating Example	118	(1)
Interpolating for Angle and Distance Surveys	118	(1)
Types of Topographic Surveys	118	(5)
Topographical Survey by Grid	119	(1)
Spot Elevations	119	(1)
Data Table	120	(1)
Grid Spacing	120	(1)
Topographical Survey by Angle and Distance	121	(2)
Angle and Distance Example	122	(1)
Measuring Angle and Distance	122	(1)
Data Table for Sample Problem	122	(1)
Drawing Topographic Maps	123	(1)
Hand-Drawing Maps	123	(1)
Mapping Supplies	123	(1)
Topographic Maps by Grid	123	(1)
Drawing Contour Lines	123	(1)
Sample Problem-Topographic by Grid	124	(4)
Conceptualizing a Map	124	(1)
Paper Size and Scale	125	(1)
Drawing the Map	125	(1)
Sheet One	125	(1)
Sheet Two	126	(2)
Profile Graph from Topographic Map	128	(3)
Drawing a Profile by Determining Values	131	(1)
Determining Stations	131	(1)
Example of a Profile by Determining Distance and Elevation	132	(3)
Drawing a Profile by Transferring the Information	135	(2)
Summary	137	(1)
Student Activity	138	(1)
9 Traverse Surveys	139	(15)
Introduction	140	(1)
Selecting Precision	140	(1)
Open and Closed Traverses	140	(1)
Open Traverse	140	(1)
Closed Traverse	140	(1)
Balancing a Traverse	141	(6)
Balancing a Closed Traverse Using Compass Rule	141	(6)
Collecting Data	142	(1)
Summing the Angles	142	(1)
Balancing the Angles	142	(1)
Balancing Angles	143	(1)
Balancing Angles by Averaging	143	(1)
Converting Angles to Bearings Using Compass Rule	143	(2)
Law of Parallel Lines	144	(1)
Determining Latitudes and Departures	145	(1)
Balancing Latitudes and Departures	145	(1)
Sorting the Latitudes and Departures	146	(1)
Determining Latitudes and Departure Error	146	(1)
Correcting the Latitudes and Departures	146	(1)
Calculating Correct Distances	146	(1)
Traverse Sample Problem	147	(5)
Balancing Angles	147	(1)
Significiant Figures When Converting Angles	147	(1)
Bearing for Sample Problems	148	(1)
Balancing Latitudes and Departures	149	(1)
Calculating Latitudes	149	(1)
Calculating the Departures	150	(1)
Determining Corrected Distances	151	(1)
Summary	152	(1)
Student Activity	153	(1)
10 Global Positioning systems	154	(11)
Introduction	155	(1)
GPS History	155	(1)
Global Positioning systems	155	(1)
Space Segment	155	(1)
Control Segment	156	(1)
User Segment	156	(1)
Latitude and Longitude	156	(2)
Latitude	156	(1)
Longitude	157	(1)
Universal Transverse Mercator	158	(2)
Positioning	160	(2)
Triangulation	160	(1)
Trilateration	160	(2)
Determining Distance	162	(1)
Pseudorandom Noise	162	(1)
Sources of GPS Error	162	(1)
Surveying with GPS	162	(1)
Differential GPS (DGPS)	162	(1)
Carrier Phase GPS	163	(1)
Wide Area Augmentation System	163	(1)
Summary	163	(1)
Student Activity	163	(2)
APPENDIX: Graphing Tips	165	(4)
Introduction	166	(1)
Steps in Drawing a Graph	166	(3)
Glossary	169	(6)
Index	175