This book examines the simultaneous acquisition of Norwegian and English by two first-born children each with one American and one Norwegian parent. Lanza investigates the issue of language mixing in relation to language dominance and the children's differentiation between the two languages in relation to the communicative demands of the context. This new paperback edition contains an extensive updated bibliography.

Elizabeth Lanza is Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Oslo. She is currently involved in a project on multilingual education in elementary schools in Ethiopia.

Acknowledgements

ix

Preface to Paperback Edition

xi

List of Figures

xii

List of Tables

xiii

Abbreviations and Symbols

xiv

1. Introduction

1

(16)

1.0 Introduction

1

(1)

1.1 Language system and language mixing

2

(2)

1.2 The one-system or two-system hypotheses

4

(1)

1.3 Language mixing and bilingualism: a sociolinguistic perspective

5

(6)

1.4 Simultaneous or successive acquisition of two languages?

11

(2)

1.5 Language exposure patterns for establishing early bilingualism

13

(2)

1.6 Overview of the book

15

(2)

2. Language Mixing: Some Linguistic, Psycholinguistic, Neurolinguistic, and Sociolinguistic Issues

17

(54)

2.0 Introduction

17

(1)

2.1 'Bilingualism as a first language'

17

(32)

2.1.1 Leopold's diary study

18

(5)

2.1.2 Swain and Wesche (1975)

23

(4)

2.1.3 Volterra and Taeschner (1978)

27

(5)

2.1.4 Redlinger and Park (1980)

32

(6)

2.1.5 Vihman (1985)

38

(7)

2.1.6 Other studies

45

(4)

2.1.7 Summary

49

(1)

2.2 Some empirical claims of separate development

49

(10)

2.2.1 Language mixing from language input

50

(3)

2.2.2 Cases for separate lexical and syntactic development

53

(6)

2.3 One system or two?

59

(3)

2.4 Are bilinguals the sum of two monolinguals?

62

(2)

2.5 Awareness of language and language choice

64

(5)

2.5.1 What is metalinguistic awareness?

64

(1)

2.5.2 Bilingualism and metalinguistic awareness

65

(4)

2.6 Conclusion

69

(2)

3. A Study in Infant Bilingualism

71

(44)

3.0 Introduction

71

(1)

3.1 The place and the languages

71

(10)

3.1.1 Norway as a multicultural land

71

(5)

3.1.2 English in Norway

76

(2)

3.1.3 The Norwegian language

78

(1)

3.1.4 Mothers and fathers as primary caregivers in American and Norwegian society

79

(2)

3.2 Research design

81

(9)

3.2.1 A case for the case study

81

(1)

3.2.2 Participants: search and selection

82

(4)

3.2.3 The children and their families

86

(4)

3.2.3.1 Siri

87

(2)

3.2.3.2 Tomas

89

(1)

3.3 Data collection

90

(11)

3.3.1 Types of data

91

(2)

3.3.2 Recording method and schedules

93

(4)

3.3.3 Summary evaluation of the data

97

(4)

3.4 The analysis

101

(2)

3.4.1 The transcript

101

(2)

3.4.2 The units of analysis

103

(1)

3.5 Language mixing or not: dealing with bilingual child language data

103

(11)

3.5.1 The problem of interpretation

103

(2)

3.5.2 The problem of language assignment

105

(2)

3.5.3 Phonological extensions and language mixing

107

(7)

3.6 Conclusion

114

(1)

4. Language Mixing by the Young Bilingual Child: Some Formal Aspects

115

(83)

4.0 Introduction

115

(1)

4.1 Do children have formal grammatical categories?

115

(8)

4.1.1 Are early categories semantic/pragmatic or syntactic in nature?

116

(4)

4.1.2 A transition from child grammar to adult grammar

120

(3)

4.2 Linguistic units

123

(4)

4.2.1 Utterances and mixed utterances

123

(1)

4.2.2 Units in the child's system, and lexical and grammatical morphemes

124

(3)

4.3 The children's utterances with lexical and grammatical morphemes

127

(8)

4.4 Formal categories of mixes and dominance

135

(41)

4.4.1 Directionality of mixing as an indicator of dominance

136

(27)

4.4.1.1 English verb + Norwegian suffix

138

(5)

4.4.1.2 English noun + Norwegian suffix

143

(5)

4.4.1.3 Norwegian modal auxiliary + English verb

148

(1)

4.4.1.4 Norwegian determiner + English noun

149

(2)

4.4.1.5 Norwegian pronouns and English pronouns

151

(6)

4.4.1.6 Negation

157

(3)

4.4.1.7 Mixing of other closed class items

160

(3)

4.4.1.8 Tomas's mixed utterances

163

(1)

4.4.2 Blends

163

(4)

4.4.3 Language-specific word order

167

(2)

4.4.4 Discussion

169

(7)

4.5 Formal categories of mixes and code-switching

176

(20)

4.5.1 Postulated constraints on intra-sentential code-switching

177

(1)

4.5.2 Code-switching, dominance or borrowing?

178

(20)

4.5.2.1 Distribution of bilingual children's mixed items by word class

179

(7)

4.5.2.2 Bilingual children's mixing and the Matrix Language Frame Model

186

(7)

4.5.2.3 Discussion

193

(3)

4.6 Conclusion

196

(2)

5. Language Choice by the Young Bilingual Child: Form and Function in Discourse

198

(50)

5.0 Introduction

198

(1)

5.1 Language choice in conversational discourse

198

(7)

5.1.1 Assumptions of discourse analysis

199

(1)

5.1.2. The unit of speech: the turn at talk

200

(5)

5.2 Siri's language choice: a developmental perspective

205

(29)

5.2.1 Siri's turns at talk: an overview

205

(3)

5.2.2 Siri's choice of English, Norwegian, and mixed utterances

208

(5)

5.2.3 Mixed turns and non-mixed turns

213

(2)

5.2.4 Lexical vs. grammatical mixing

215

(5)

5.2.5 Siri's lexical mixing

220

(13)

5.2.6 Discussion

233

(1)

5.3 Tomas's language choice: a developmental perspective

234

(11)

5.3.1 Tomas's turns at talk: an overview

234

(1)

5.3.2 Tomas's choice of English, Norwegian, and mixed utterances

235

(3)

5.3.3 Tomas's use of English in discourse

238

(6)

5.3.4 Discussion

244

(1)

5.4 Conclusion

245

(3)

6. Language Mixing and Language Input: Parental Discourse Strategies

248

(70)

6.0 Introduction

248

(1)

6.1 Language input in language acquisition

248

(5)

6.1.1 Language input in first and second language acquisition

249

(1)

6.1.2 Language input in bilingual families

250

(3)

6.2 Language input and context

253

(7)

6.2.1 Definitions of context

253

(1)

6.2.2 The negotiation of context

254

(6)

6.3 Discourse context for language mixing

260

(12)

6.3.1 Parental discourse strategies towards child language mixing

260

(1)

6.3.2 A monolingual-bilingual context continuum

261

(8)

6.3.3 Discussion

269

(3)

6.4 Siri's language input

272

(31)

6.4.1 Siri's mother's discourse strategies towards mixing

272

(10)

6.4.2 Siri's father's discourse strategies towards mixing

282

(10)

6.4.3 Siri in triadic interactions with her parents

292

(9)

6.4.4 Discussion

301

(2)

6.5 Tomas's language input

303

(13)

6.5.1 Overview of language input in Tomas's home

303

(1)

6.5.2 Tomas's mother's discourse strategies towards mixing

304

(6)

6.5.3 Tomas's father's discourse strategies towards mixing

310

(4)

6.5.4 Tomas in triadic interactions with his parents

314

(1)

6.5.5 Discussion

315

(1)

6.6 Conclusion

316

(2)

7. Conclusion

318

(10)

7.0 Introduction

318

(1)

7.1 Summary of the major findings

318

(1)

7.2 More detailed summary of findings and their generality

319

(5)

7.3 Implications and directions for future research

324

(4)

8. Afterword

328

(8)

Appendices

I. Description of Language Samples: Siri and Tomas

336

(3)

II Siri: Mixed Utterances

339

(16)

III. Tomas: Mixed Utterances

355

(2)

IV. Consent Form

357

(1)

V. Conventions for Transcribing Tapes

358

(4)

VI. Keeping a Diary of a Bilingual Child's Language Development

362

(2)

VII. Extra Tables (not in the text)

364

(6)

References

370

(26)

Additional references

396

(3)

Index

399

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