Lasers and Electro-optics: Fundamentals and Engineering

by Christopher C. Davis

• ISBN13: 9780521484039
• ISBN10: 0521484030
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1996-05-31
• Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Summary

This comprehensive textbook provides a detailed introduction to the basic physics and engineering aspects of lasers, as well as to the design and operational principles of a wide range of optical systems and electro-optic devices. Throughout, full details of important derivations and results are given, as are many practical examples of the design, construction and performance characteristics of different types of lasers and electro-optic devices. Covering a broad range of topics in modern optical physics and engineering, this book will be invaluable to those taking undergraduate courses in laser physics, optoelectronics, photonics and optical engineering. It will also act as a useful reference for graduate students and researchers in these fields.

Table of Contents

Preface	xix
1 Spontaneous and Stimulated Transitions	1	(21)
1.1 Introduction	1	(1)
1.2 Why `Quantum' Electronics?	1	(2)
1.3 Amplification at Optical Frequencies	3	(4)
1.3.1 Spontaneous Emission	4	(2)
1.3.2 Stimulated Emission	6	(1)
1.4 The Relation Between Energy Density and Intensity	7	(4)
1.4.1 Stimulated Absorption	10	(1)
1.5 Intensity of a Beam of Electromagnetic Radiation in Terms of Photon Flux	11	(1)
1.6 Black-Body Radiation	11	(5)
1.7 Relation Between the Einstein A and B Coefficients	16	(2)
1.8 The Effect of Level Degeneracy	18	(1)
1.9 Ratio of Spontaneous and Stimulated Transitions	19	(1)
1.10 Problems	20	(2)
2 Optical Frequency Amplifiers	22	(35)
2.1 Introduction	22	(1)
2.2 Homogeneous Line Broadening	22	(4)
2.2.1 Natural Broadening	22	(4)
2.3 Inhomogeneous Broadening	26	(4)
2.3.1 Doppler Broadening	27	(3)
2.4 Optical Frequency Amplification with a Homogeneously Broadened Transition	30	(4)
2.4.1 The Stimulated Emission Rate in a Homogeneously Broadened System	33	(1)
2.5 Optical Frequency Amplification with Inhomogeneous Broadening Included	34	(1)
2.6 Optical Frequency Oscillation -- Saturation	35	(9)
2.6.1 Homogeneous Systems	35	(3)
2.6.2 Inhomogeneous Systems	38	(6)
2.7 Power Output from a Laser Amplifier	44	(1)
2.8 The Electron Oscillator Model of a Radiative Transition	45	(4)
2.9 What Are the Physical Significances of X' and X"?	49	(3)
2.10 The Classical Oscillator Explanation for Stimulated Emission	52	(2)
2.11 Problems	54	(1)
References	55	(2)
3 Introduction to Two Practical Laser Systems	57	(11)
3.1 Introduction	57	(6)
3.1.1 The Ruby Laser	57	(6)
3.2 The Helium-Neon Laser	63	(4)
References	67	(1)
4 Passive Optical Resonators	68	(20)
4.1 Introduction	68	(1)
4.2 Preliminary Consideration of Optical Resonators	68	(2)
4.3 Calculation of the Energy Stored in an Optical Resonator	70	(2)
4.4 Quality Factor of a Resonator in Terms of the Transmission of its End Reflectors	72	(1)
4.5 Fabry-Perot Etalons and Interferometers	73	(6)
4.6 Internal Field Strength	79	(2)
4.7 Fabry-Perot Interferometers as Optical Spectrum Analyzers	81	(5)
4.7.1 Example	84	(2)
4.8 Problems	86	(1)
References	87	(1)
5 Optical Resonators Containing Amplifying Media	88	(20)
5.1 Introduction	88	(1)
5.2 Fabry-Perot Resonator Containing an Amplifying Medium	88	(4)
5.2.1 Threshold Population Inversion -- Numerical Example	91	(1)
5.3 The Oscillation Frequency	92	(1)
5.4 Multimode Laser Oscillation	93	(6)
5.5 Mode-Beating	99	(2)
5.6 The Power Output of a Laser	101	(4)
5.7 Optimum Coupling	105	(1)
5.8 Problems	106	(1)
References	107	(1)
6 Laser Radiation	108	(18)
6.1 Introduction	108	(1)
6.2 Diffraction	108	(2)
6.3 Two Parallel Narrow Slits	110	(1)
6.4 Single Slit	110	(1)
6.5 Two-Dimensional Apertures	111	(2)
6.5.1 Circular Aperture	111	(2)
6.6 Laser Modes	113	(4)
6.7 Beam Divergence	117	(1)
6.8 Linewidth of Laser Radiation	118	(1)
6.9 Coherence Properties	119	(2)
6.10 Interference	121	(3)
6.11 Problems	124	(1)
References	124	(2)
7 Control of Laser Oscillators	126	(15)
7.1 Introduction	126	(1)
7.2 Multimode Operation	126	(1)
7.3 Single Longitudinal Mode Operation	127	(4)
7.4 Mode-Locking	131	(3)
7.5 Methods of Mode-Locking	134	(4)
7.5.1 Active Mode-Locking	134	(4)
7.6 Pulse Compression	138	(1)
References	139	(2)
8 Optically Pumped Solid-State Lasers	141	(44)
8.1 Introduction	141	(1)
8.2 Optical Pumping in Three- and Four-Level Lasers	141	(3)
8.2.1 Effective Lifetime of the Levels Involved	141	(1)
8.2.2 Threshold Inversion in Three- and Four-Level Lasers	142	(1)
8.2.3 Quantum Efficiency	143	(1)
8.2.4 Pumping Power	143	(1)
8.2.5 Threshold Lamp Power	144	(1)
8.3 Pulsed Versus CW Operation	144	(2)
8.3.1 Threshold for Pulsed Operation of a Ruby Laser	145	(1)
8.3.2 Threshold for CW Operation of a Ruby Laser	145	(1)
8.4 Threshold Population Inversion and Stimulated Emission Cross-Section	146	(1)
8.5 Paramagnetic Ion Solid-State Lasers	147	(1)
8.6 The Nd: YAG Laser	147	(7)
8.6.1 Effective Spontaneous Emission Coefficient	152	(1)
8.6.2 Example -- Threshold Pump Energy of a Pulsed Nd: YAG Laser	153	(1)
8.7 CW Operation of the Nd: YAG Laser	154	(1)
8.8 The Nd^(3+) Glass Laser	154	(5)
8.9 Geometrical Arrangements for Optical Pumping	159	(7)
8.9.1 Axisymmetric Optical Pumping of a Cylindrical Rod	159	(7)
8.10 High Power Pulsed Solid-State Lasers	166	(1)
8.11 Diode-Pumped Solid-State Lasers	167	(1)
8.12 Relaxation Oscillations (Spiking)	168	(2)
8.13 Rate Equations for Relaxation Oscillation	170	(4)
8.14 Undamped Relaxation Oscillations	174	(1)
8.15 Giant Pulse (Q-Switched) Lasers	175	(4)
8.16 Theoretical Description of the Q-Switching Process	179	(4)
8.16.1 Example Calculation of Q-Switched Pulse Characteristics	182	(1)
8.17 Problems	183	(1)
References	183	(2)
9 Gas Lasers	185	(22)
9.1 Introduction	185	(1)
9.2 Optical Pumping	185	(2)
9.3 Electron Impact Excitation	187	(1)
9.4 The Argon Ion Laser	188	(2)
9.5 Pumping Saturation in Gas Laser Systems	190	(1)
9.6 Pulsed Ion Lasers	191	(1)
9.7 CW Ion Lasers	192	(4)
9.8 `Metal' Vapor Ion Lasers	196	(3)
9.9 Gas Discharges for Exciting Gas Lasers	199	(2)
9.10 Rate Equations for Gas Discharge Lasers	201	(3)
9.11 Problems	204	(1)
References	205	(2)
10 Molecular Gas Lasers I	207	(18)
10.1 Introduction	207	(1)
10.2 The Energy Levels of Molecules	207	(5)
10.3 Vibrations of a Polyatomic Molecule	212	(2)
10.4 Rotational Energy States	214	(1)
10.5 Rotational Populations	214	(2)
10.6 The Overall Energy State of a Molecule	216	(1)
10.7 The Carbon Dioxide Laser	217	(5)
10.8 The Carbon Monoxide Laser	222	(2)
10.9 Other Gas Discharge Molecular Lasers	224	(1)
References	224	(1)
11 Molecular Gas Lasers II	225	(23)
11.1 Introduction	225	(1)
11.2 Gas Transport Lasers	225	(3)
11.3 Gas Dynamic Lasers	228	(4)
11.4 High Pressure Pulsed Gas Lasers	232	(6)
11.5 Ultraviolet Molecular Gas Lasers	238	(3)
11.6 Photodissociation Lasers	241	(1)
11.7 Chemical Lasers	241	(3)
11.8 Far-Infrared Lasers	244	(1)
11.9 Problems	244	(2)
References	246	(2)
12 Tunable Lasers	248	(19)
12.1 Introduction	248	(1)
12.2 Organic Dye Lasers	248	(5)
12.2.1 Energy Level Structure	248	(3)
12.2.2 Pulsed Laser Excitation	251	(1)
12.2.3 CW Dye Laser Operation	252	(1)
12.3 Calculation of Threshold Pump Power in Dye Lasers	253	(7)
12.3.1 Pulsed Operation	256	(3)
12.3.2 CW Operation	259	(1)
12.4 Inorganic Liquid Lasers	260	(1)
12.5 Free Electron Lasers	260	(6)
12.6 Problems	266	(1)
References	266	(1)
13 Semiconductor Lasers	267	(45)
13.1 Introduction	267	(1)
13.2 Semiconductor Physics Background	267	(4)
13.3 Carrier Concentrations	271	(3)
13.4 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors	274	(1)
13.5 The p-n Junction	275	(5)
13.6 Recombination and Luminescence	280	(5)
13.6.1 The Spectrum of Recombination Radiation	281	(2)
13.6.2 External Quantum Efficiency	283	(2)
13.7 Heterojunctions	285	(5)
13.7.1 Ternary and Quaternary Lattice-Matched Materials	285	(1)
13.7.2 Energy Barriers and Rectification	286	(1)
13.7.3 The Double Heterostructure	286	(4)
13.8 Semiconductor Lasers	290	(2)
13.9 The Gain Coefficient of a Semiconductor Laser	292	(3)
13.9.1 Estimation of Semiconductor Laser Gain	293	(2)
13.10 Threshold Current and Power-Voltage Characteristics	295	(1)
13.11 Longitudinal and Transverse Modes	296	(1)
13.12 Semiconductor Laser Structures	297	(7)
13.12.1 Distributed Feedback (DFB) and Distributed Bragg Reflection (DBR) Lasers	299	(5)
13.13 Surface Emitting Lasers	304	(2)
13.14 Laser Diode Arrays and Broad Area Lasers	306	(1)
13.15 Quantum Well Lasers	307	(3)
13.16 Problems	310	(1)
References	311	(1)
14 Analysis of Optical Systems I	312	(25)
14.1 Introduction	312	(1)
14.2 The Propagation of Rays and Waves through Isotropic Media	312	(1)
14.3 Simple Reflection and Refraction Analysis	313	(3)
14.4 Paraxial Ray Analysis	316	(11)
14.4.1 Matrix Formulation	316	(8)
14.4.2 Ray Tracing	324	(1)
14.4.3 Imaging and Magnification	325	(2)
14.5 The Use of Impedances in Optics	327	(8)
14.5.1 Reflectance for Waves Incident on an Interface at Oblique Angles	331	(1)
14.5.2 Brewster's Angle	332	(1)
14.5.3 Transformation of Impedance through Multilayer Optical Systems	332	(2)
14.5.4 Polarization Changes	334	(1)
14.6 Problems	335	(1)
References	336	(1)
15 Analysis of Optical Systems II	337	(11)
15.1 Introduction	337	(1)
15.2 Periodic Optical Systems	337	(2)
15.3 The Identical Thin Lens Waveguide	339	(1)
15.4 The Propagation of Rays in Mirror Resonators	340	(2)
15.5 The Propagation of Rays in Isotropic Media	342	(4)
15.6 The Propagation of Spherical Waves	346	(1)
15.7 Problems	347	(1)
References	347	(1)
16 Optics of Gaussian Beams	348	(39)
16.1 Introduction	348	(1)
16.2 Beam-Like Solutions of the Wave Equation	348	(6)
16.3 Higher Order Modes	354	(3)
16.3.1 Beam Modes with Cartesian Symmetry	354	(1)
16.3.2 Cylindrically Symmetric Higher Order Beams	355	(2)
16.4 The Transformation of a Gaussian Beam by a Lens	357	(14)
16.5 Transformation of a Gaussian Beams by General Optical Systems	371	(1)
16.6 Gaussian Beams in Lens Waveguides	371	(1)
16.7 The Propagation of a Gaussian Beam in a Medium with a Quadratic Refractive Index Profile	372	(1)
16.8 The Propagation of Gaussian Beams in Media with Spatial Gain or Absorption Variations	372	(1)
16.9 Propagation in a Medium with a Parabolic Gain Profile	373	(2)
16.10 Gaussian Beams in Plane and Spherical Mirror Resonators	375	(2)
16.11 Symmetrical Resonators	377	(2)
16.12 An Example of Resonator Design	379	(2)
16.13 Diffraction Losses	381	(1)
16.14 Unstable Resonators	382	(2)
16.15 Problems	384	(2)
References	386	(1)
17 Optical Fibers and Waveguides	387	(51)
17.1 Introduction	387	(1)
17.2 Ray Theory of Cylindrical Optical Fibers	387	(8)
17.2.1 Meridional Rays in a Step-Index Fiber	387	(3)
17.2.2 Step-Index Fibers	390	(2)
17.2.3 Graded-Index Fibers	392	(1)
17.2.4 Bound, Refracting, and Tunnelling Rays	393	(2)
17.3 Ray Theory of a Dielectric Slab Guide	395	(2)
17.4 The Goos-Hanchen Shift	397	(2)
17.5 Wave Theory of the Dielectric Slab Guide	399	(1)
17.6 P-Waves in the Slab Guide	400	(4)
17.7 Dispersion Curves and Field Distributions in a Slab Waveguide	404	(2)
17.8 S-Waves in the Slab Guide	406	(1)
17.9 Practical Slab Guide Geometries	407	(1)
17.10 Cylindrical Dielectric Waveguides	408	(7)
17.10.1 Fields in the Core	413	(1)
17.10.2 Fields in the Cladding	414	(1)
17.10.3 Boundary Conditions	414	(1)
17.11 Modes and Field Patterns	415	(1)
17.12 The Weakly-Guiding Approximation	416	(1)
17.13 Mode Patterns	417	(2)
17.14 Cutoff Frequencies	419	(4)
17.14.1 Example	421	(2)
17.15 Multimode Fibers	423	(1)
17.16 Fabrication of Optical Fibers	423	(2)
17.17 Dispersion in Optical Fibers	425	(5)
17.17.1 Material Dispersion	427	(1)
17.17.2 Waveguide Dispersion	428	(2)
17.18 Solitons	430	(1)
17.19 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers	430	(3)
17.20 Coupling Optical Sources and Detectors to Fibers	433	(2)
17.20.1 Fiber Connectors	434	(1)
17.21 Problems	435	(2)
References	437	(1)
18 Optics of Anisotropic Media	438	(34)
18.1 Introduction	438	(1)
18.2 The Dielectric Tensor	438	(2)
18.3 Stored Electromagnetic Energy in Anisotropic Media	440	(1)
18.4 Propagation of Monochromatic Plane Waves in Anisotropic Media	441	(2)
18.5 The Two Possible Directions of D for a Given Wave Vector are Orthogonal	443	(1)
18.6 Angular Relationships between D, E, H, k, and the Poynting Vector S	444	(2)
18.7 The Indicatrix	446	(2)
18.8 Uniaxial Crystals	448	(2)
18.9 Index Surfaces	450	(2)
18.10 Other Surfaces Related to the Uniaxial Indicatrix	452	(1)
18.11 Huygenian Constructions	453	(4)
18.12 Retardation	457	(4)
18.13 Biaxial Crystals	461	(3)
18.14 Intensity Transmission Through Polarizer/Waveplate/Polarizer Combinations	464	(1)
18.14.1 Examples	465	(1)
18.15 The Jones Calculus	465	(5)
18.15.1 The Jones Vector	466	(1)
18.15.2 The Jones Matrix	467	(3)
18.16 Problems	470	(1)
References	471	(1)
19 The Electro-Optic and Acousto-Optic Effects and Modulation of Light Beams	472	(36)
19.1 Introduction to the Electro-Optic Effect	472	(1)
19.2 The Linear Electro-Optic Effect	472	(7)
19.3 The Quadratic Electro-Optic Effect	479	(1)
19.4 Longitudinal Electro-Optic Modulation	480	(2)
19.5 Transverse Electro-optic Modulation	482	(4)
19.6 Electro-Optic Amplitude Modulation	486	(2)
19.7 Electro-Optic Phase Modulation	488	(1)
19.8 High Frequency Waveguide Electro-Optic Modulators	489	(4)
19.8.1 Straight Electrode Modulator	490	(3)
19.9 Other High Frequency Electro-Optic Devices	493	(2)
19.10 Electro-Optic Beam Deflectors	495	(1)
19.11 Acousto-Optic Modulators	495	(7)
19.12 Applications of Acousto-Optic Modulators	502	(2)
19.12.1 Diffraction Efficiency of TeO(2)	502	(1)
19.12.2 Acousto-Optic Modulators	502	(1)
19.12.3 Acousto-Optic Beam Deflectors and Scanners	503	(1)
19.12.4 RF Spectrum Analysis	504	(1)
19.13 Construction and Materials for Acousto-Optic Modulators	504	(3)
19.14 Problems	507	(1)
References	507	(1)
20 Introduction to Nonlinear Processes	508	(16)
20.1 Introduction	508	(1)
20.2 Anharmonic Potentials and Nonlinear Polarization	508	(4)
20.3 Nonlinear Susceptibilities and Mixing Coefficients	512	(2)
20.4 Second Harmonic Generation	514	(2)
20.4.1 Symmetries and Kleinman's Conjecture	516	(1)
20.5 The Linear Electro-Optic Effect	516	(1)
20.6 Parametric and Other Nonlinear Processes	517	(1)
20.7 Macroscopic and Microscopic Susceptibilities	518	(4)
20.8 Problems	522	(1)
References	522	(2)
21 Wave Propagation in Nonlinear Media	524	(37)
21.1 Introduction	524	(1)
21.2 Electromagnetic Waves and Nonlinear Polarization	524	(4)
21.3 Second Harmonic Generation	528	(2)
21.4 The Effective Nonlinear Coefficient d(eff)	530	(2)
21.5 Phase Matching	532	(3)
21.5.1 Second Harmonic Generation	533	(1)
21.5.2 Example	533	(2)
21.5.3 Phase Matching in Sum-Frequency Generation	535	(1)
21.6 Beam Walk-Off and 90 Degree Phase Matching	535	(1)
21.7 Second Harmonic Generation with Gaussian Beams	536	(5)
21.7.1 Intracavity SHG	537	(1)
21.7.2 External SHG	538	(1)
21.7.3 The Effects of Depletion on Second Harmonic Generation	538	(3)
21.8 Up-Conversion and Difference-Frequency Generation	541	(1)
21.9 Optical Parametric Amplification	542	(3)
21.9.1 Example	544	(1)
21.10 Parametric Oscillators	545	(3)
21.10.1 Example	547	(1)
21.11 Parametric Oscillator Tuning	548	(2)
21.12 Phase Conjugation	550	(4)
21.12.1 Phase Conjugation in CS(2)	553	(1)
21.13 Optical Bistability	554	(3)
21.14 Practical Details of the Use of Crystals for Nonlinear Applications	557	(1)
21.15 Problems	558	(1)
References	559	(2)
22 Detection of Optical Radiation	561	(46)
22.1 Introduction	561	(1)
22.2 Noise	561	(7)
22.2.1 Shot Noise	561	(3)
22.2.2 Johnson Noise	564	(3)
22.2.3 Generation-Recombination Noise and 1/f Noise	567	(1)
22.3 Detector Performance Parameters	568	(2)
22.3.1 Noise Equivalent Power	568	(1)
22.3.2 Detectivity	569	(1)
22.3.3 Frequency Response and Time Constant	569	(1)
22.4 Practical Characteristics of Optical Detectors	570	(19)
22.4.1 Photoemissive Detectors	570	(6)
22.4.2 Photoconductive Detectors	576	(6)
22.4.3 Photovoltaic Detectors (Photodiodes)	582	(4)
22.4.4 p-i-n Photodiodes	586	(1)
22.4.5 Avalanche Photodiodes	587	(2)
22.5 Thermal Detectors	589	(2)
22.6 Detection Limits for Optical Detector Systems	591	(7)
22.6.1 Noise in Photomultipliers	592	(1)
22.6.2 Photon Counting	593	(1)
22.6.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Direct Detection	594	(1)
22.6.4 Direct Detection with p-i-n Photodiodes	595	(2)
22.6.5 Direct Detection with APDs	597	(1)
22.7 Coherent Detection	598	(5)
22.8 Bit-Error Rate	603	(2)
References	605	(2)
23 Coherence Theory	607	(40)
23.1 Introduction	607	(1)
23.2 Square-Law Detectors	607	(1)
23.3 The Analytic Signal	608	(3)
23.3.1 Hilbert Transforms	610	(1)
23.4 Correlation Functions	611	(3)
23.5 Temporal and Spatial Coherence	614	(4)
23.6 Spatial Coherence	618	(2)
23.7 Spatial Coherence with an Extended Source	620	(2)
23.8 Propagation Laws of Partial Coherence	622	(3)
23.9 Propagation from a Finite Plane Surface	625	(5)
23.10 van Cittert-Zernike Theorem	630	(2)
23.11 Spatial Coherence of a Quasi-Monochromatic, Uniform, Spatially Incoherent Circular Source	632	(2)
23.12 Intensity Correlation Interferometry	634	(1)
23.13 Intensity Fluctuations	635	(3)
23.14 Photon Statistics	638	(5)
23.14.1 Constant Intensity Source	639	(1)
23.14.2 Random Intensities	640	(3)
23.15 The Hanbury-Brown-Twiss Interferometer	643	(2)
23.16 Hanbury-Brown-Twiss Experiment with Photon Count Correlations	645	(1)
References	646	(1)
24 Laser Applications	647	(29)
24.1 Optical Communication Systems	647	(9)
24.1.1 Introduction	647	(2)
24.1.2 Absorption in Optical Fibers	649	(1)
24.1.3 Optical Communication Networks	650	(1)
24.1.4 Optical Fiber Network Architectures	651	(2)
24.1.5 Coding Schemes in Optical Networks	653	(1)
24.1.6 Line-of-Sight Optical Links	654	(2)
24.2 Holography	656	(8)
24.2.1 Wavefront Reconstruction	656	(4)
24.2.2 The Hologram as a Diffraction Grating	660	(1)
24.2.3 Volume Holograms	661	(3)
24.3 Laser Isotope Separation	664	(5)
24.4 Laser Plasma Generation and Fusion	669	(2)
24.5 Medical Applications of Lasers	671	(2)
24.5.1 Laser Angioplasty	673	(1)
References	673	(3)
Appendix 1 Optical Terminology	676	(3)
Appendix 2 The delta-Function	679	(2)
Appendix 3 Black-Body Radiation Formulas	681	(2)
Appendix 4 RLC Circuit	683	(3)
A4.1 Analysis of a Driven RLC Circuit	683	(3)
Appendix 5 Storage and Transport of Energy by Electromagnetic Fields	686	(3)
Appendix 6 The Reflection and Refraction of a Plane Electromagnetic Wave at the Boundary Between Two Isotropic Media of Different Refractive Index	689	(3)
Appendix 7 The Vector Differential Equation for Light Rays	692	(3)
Appendix 8 Symmetry Properties of Crystals and the 32 Crystal Classes	695	(3)
A8.1 Class 6mm	696	(1)
A8.2 Class 42m	696	(1)
A8.3 Class 222	697	(1)
Appendix 9 Tensors	698	(3)
Appendix 10 Bessel Function Relations	701	(1)
Appendix 11 Green's Functions	702	(3)
Appendix 12 Recommended Values of Some Physical Constants	705	(1)
Index	706